Persecution of Christians in the Middle East
In the daily drumbeat of Mideast news, there is one story of historic proportion that is nearly unreported: the growing persecution and systematic destruction in the Islamic world of some of the world’s oldest Christian communities.
We hear when a Catholic bishop is murdered in Iraq, when machete-armed fanatics attack Egyptian Copt worshipers, or when churches are torched in Hamas-controlled Gaza. But what about the jailing in Saudi Arabia of foreign workers for holding forbidden Christian prayers? Or the arrest in Pakistan of a Christian man for marrying a Muslim woman? Or the continuing Islamic educational system that teaches the young that Christians (as well as Jews) are “the descendants of apes and pigs”?
The pattern is nearly the same wherever extremist Islam holds sway. From Bangladesh to Darfur, Christians have become regular targets for Islamic thugs and the governments that back them. Just this month, a Pakistani court upheld the kidnapping, conversion and “marriage” to older Moslem men of two Christian sisters, aged 10 and 13.
Yet even in lands that are not under orthodox Sharia law, Christian communities feel the pressure of persecution. In constitutionally secular Turkey, a legally recognized Protestant church in the capital of Ankara is under threat of closure by local Islamist police.
Many Christians in Islamic lands have become subject to such terror that they are fleeing the homelands their ancestors have known almost since the time of Jesus. Iraq’s Christian sects now feel forced to pray in secret. Others simply leave. Although they comprise less than four percent of Iraq’s population, Iraqi Christians now account for 40 per cent of its refugees.
Lebanon’s once politically powerful Christian community has already shrunken almost beyond recognition. Thirty years ago, Lebanon was 60% Christian; today it is barely 25%. The growing political power of Iran-backed Hezbollah is encouraging further departures.
Even in the Holy Land, where Jesus walked, there is an increasing Christian exodus from both the West Bank and Gaza. Part of it surely stems from the continuing Palestinian- Israeli conflict. But much of it results from a growing Islamic campaign to force Christians to sell their property and leave. Bethlehem, the birthplace of Jesus, was once 90% Christian. Today it has a 65% Moslem majority.
The only place in the Mideast where Christian communities continue to grow is in the Jewish State of Israel. Israel’s tolerance is logical. What people of faith knows the dangers of religious persecution better than the people of Israel especially those whose families originated in the Islamic world? Between 1948 and 1956 more than 850,000 Jews were forced to flee the Arab lands where their families had lived for centuries.
Most found new homes in Israel; others settled in Western Europe and the Americas. Today there are almost no Jews in the Arab world. In Egypt, where 180,000 Jews once lived, there are fewer than 80. In Iraq, where Jews once comprised a third of Baghdad, there are possibly ten left. In Libya, there are none.
For much of Islamic history there was relative tolerance of both Jews and Christians. Though never treated as equals to Moslems, they were accepted as Dhimmi protected minorities. Today there seems to be a dangerous tendency in many Muslim nations to neither respect nor try to preserve the historic sanctity of these once sheltered cultures and faiths.
When Afghan fanatics destroyed two ancient statues of Buddha, the world was shocked. But the world should not forgot that between 1948 and 1967, when Islamic forces controlled the Holy City of Jerusalem, there was a systematic campaign to erase the historic Jewish presence. Synagogues were destroyed and ancient Jewish gravestones carted away. Even today, the Palestinian Authority not only denies Israel’s right to consider itself a Jewish state, but denies the historic Jewish connection to Jerusalem. It is an empty effort to enhance the Palestinian political narrative at the expense of others’ hard earned history.
If there is a hope of true peace in the Middle East, extremist Islam must reform its view of others. It cannot go on teaching that non-Islamic history in the Middle East is “fiction.”
There is a sacred opportunity now to take up the call for the Islamic world’s hard-pressed and ever shrinking Christian communities. All people of commitment and tolerance – Christian, Jew, and Moslem – should speak out loudly and forcefully so that the Islamic world’s Christians do not suffer the same fate as its now all but non-existent Jewish communities.
About IsraelThe Holy Land Today
The fact that Israel is the Jewish state might suggest that its population is homogeneous—but that's far from the truth! Israel's population is a gorgeous mosaic of cultures, people and religions—beginning with the various groups that make up its large Arab minority, to the rich and varied traditions of Jewish cultures from around the world that have now come home, Israeli culture is vibrant, dynamic, and diverse. In this section, you can learn more about all of the religious, ethnic and other groups that make up the Israeli people, and discover how all of these people are impacting the world far beyond Israel's tiny borders.
Ethnic groups
The ethnic stereotype most North Americans associate with Jews—think Jerry Seinfeld or Woody Allen—does not (and never has) apply to Israelis. In addition to the non-Jewish ethnic groups in Israel, Israeli Jews come from nearly as many ethnicities as Americans themselves… Read about some of the largest ethnic groups in Israel here »
The Holy Land—TodayEthnic Groups
The ethnic stereotype most North Americans associate with Jews—think Jerry Seinfeld or Woody Allen—does not (and never has) apply to Israelis. In addition to the non-Jewish ethnic groups in Israel, Israeli Jews come from nearly as many ethnicities as Americans themselves. Read about some of the largest ethnic groups in Israel here.
Ashkenazi Jews
The groups of Jews known as "Ashkenazim" technically refers to Jews descended from the medieval Jewish communities of the Rhineland Valley, encompassing most of modern-day Germany and part of northern France. Though literally translated as "German Jews," the term today is defined much more broadly, and includes Jews descended from European communities such as Poland, Lithuania, and Russia. Read more »
Ethnic GroupsAshkenazi Jews
The groups of Jews known as "Ashkenazim" technically refers to Jews descended from the medieval Jewish communities of the Rhineland Valley, encompassing most of modern-day Germany and part of northern France. Though literally translated as "German Jews," the term today is defined much more broadly, and includes Jews descended from European communities such as Poland, Lithuania, and Russia. (Jews with Spanish, Portuguese, African, or Middle Eastern ancestry are considered Sephardim. Similar to "Ashkenazi," the term "Sephardic" has become much more loosely defined over the centuries.)
The customs, or "minhagim" of Ashkenazi Jews differ from those of Sephardic Jews. Many of these differences stem from adherence to the Shulkhan Arukh, the definitive code of Jewish law. The author of the Shulkhan Arukh, Rabbi Joseph Caro, the 16th century sage, is the final word in halakhah for Sephardic Jews, while Ashkenazim rely on the glosses on the text, written by Rabbi Moses Isserles, also from the 16th century. Differences include, perhaps most famously, the prohibition against eating rice, corn, or legumes on Passover, which Ashkenazi Jews consider "unleavened bread," but Sephardim allow.
Pronunciation of Hebrew differs slightly, as do customs regarding the design and reading of the Torah. The tefillin(phylacteries) are wound around the body differently. Sephardim customarily name their children after their living parents; Ashkenazim refrain from doing so, frequently naming after a deceased relative instead. In Israel, the Ashkenazi and Sephardic communities have each appointed their own Chief Rabbi, whose rulings they follow.
Following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, and especially after the defeat of the Bar Kokhba rebellion in 135 CE, though Jews remained in Palestine, the center of Jewish life shifted to the Diaspora. As conditions steadily worsened for Jews living under the Roman Empire, many fled eastward, and rabbinic Judaism began to emerge. Reading the holy texts—Biblical and rabbinic—was considered crucial, and the emphasis on literacy later led to great successes by the Jewish communities, who were often the most learned and literate in the Gentile society. During the Islamic period, the Jews had unprecedented freedom, and the well-organized Jewish community, which at the time was centered in Baghdad, became the model for later Ashkenazi communities. Charlemagne's reign, starting in 800, created a stable environment which allowed the Jews to move throughout Western Europe, and since then, there have been well-documented Jewish communities in European lands. Great Torah scholars and commentators, such as Rashi, emerged during this time.
During the Crusader period, in the 12th - 14th centuries, Jews fled England, France and Germany and began settling in Eastern European countries, such as Poland, Lithuania, and Russia. References to the "Jews of Ashkenaz" abound in medieval Jewish texts. The Polish Jewish community in the 15th century was the largest Jewish community in the Diaspora, and continued to be so until the tragedy of the Holocaust. After the Holocaust, of the estimated 8.8 million Jews (mostly Ashkenazi) who lived in Europe, approximately 6 million were killed. Many of the survivors fled, immigrating to countries such as Israel and America.
The "Yishuv Hayashan" ("old yishuv") was mainly composed of Sephardim. Yishuv Hayashan refers to the Jewish communities in Israel which predated Zionism and the waves of Aliyah. There were groups of Ashkenazi Jews over the years which had made Aliyah and settled in Israel, but they were by no means the majority.
In 1700, a group of about 1,500 Polish Jews, following the call of Rabbi Yehuda He-Hasid, immigrated to Israel, though many died on the perilous journey. In the 1760s and 1770s, groups of Hasidic Jews settled in Israel, and Mitnadgim (Ashkenazi Jews who opposed Hasidism) arrived in the 1780s. Around 1800, the Perushim, followers of the Vilna Gaon, were the first substantial Ashkenazi group to immigrate to Israel, and they formed the basis for Israeli Ashkenazi communities. Most of the new arrivals lived in the north, in Safed and Tiberias, though a small Ashkenazic community was established in Jerusalem; following a devastating earthquake in Safed in 1836, Jerusalem began to gain prominence as the center of the Yishuv Hayashan.
Ashkenazic Jews were at the forefront of the Zionist movement. The intelligentsia responsible for launching the Zionist movement, including Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kalischer, Leon Pinsker, and later, Theoder Herzl, were all Ashkenazic Jews, influenced by the rising Enlightenment Movement and the persecution of Jews throughout Europe. Ashkenazim formed the basis for Zionist movements such as Hibbat Zion and Bilu, organizations which encouraged and assisted European Jews in making Aliyah. The "First Aliyah," beginning in the 1880s, was mainly comprised of Jews from Eastern Europe, especially from Russia, who were fleeing persecution and economic difficulties, and yearning to settle the land of Israel. The young, idealistic "olim" of the first and second Aliyot were called "haluzim" ("pioneers") and were instrumental in cultivating the land and establishing Jewish communities throughout Israel.
Ashkenazim continue to comprise a large part of immigration to the Holy Land. German Jews immigrated during the 1930s; groups of Soviet Jews arrived en masse throughout the 1980s and early 1990s; and the majority of olim in recent years, especially from North America have been Ashkenazi Jews as well. The political elite of Israel have traditionally been the Ashkenazim, though the powerful Shas party, whose constituents are mainly Sephardim, has changed that dynamic.
Ashkenazi Jews, due in large part to the emphasis placed on literacy and education, have often risen to the top in their society, whether in Europe, America, or Israel. Their achievement and accomplishments are felt in every realm, from the political, to the professional, to the cultural.
The customs, or "minhagim" of Ashkenazi Jews differ from those of Sephardic Jews. Many of these differences stem from adherence to the Shulkhan Arukh, the definitive code of Jewish law. The author of the Shulkhan Arukh, Rabbi Joseph Caro, the 16th century sage, is the final word in halakhah for Sephardic Jews, while Ashkenazim rely on the glosses on the text, written by Rabbi Moses Isserles, also from the 16th century. Differences include, perhaps most famously, the prohibition against eating rice, corn, or legumes on Passover, which Ashkenazi Jews consider "unleavened bread," but Sephardim allow.
Pronunciation of Hebrew differs slightly, as do customs regarding the design and reading of the Torah. The tefillin(phylacteries) are wound around the body differently. Sephardim customarily name their children after their living parents; Ashkenazim refrain from doing so, frequently naming after a deceased relative instead. In Israel, the Ashkenazi and Sephardic communities have each appointed their own Chief Rabbi, whose rulings they follow.
Following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, and especially after the defeat of the Bar Kokhba rebellion in 135 CE, though Jews remained in Palestine, the center of Jewish life shifted to the Diaspora. As conditions steadily worsened for Jews living under the Roman Empire, many fled eastward, and rabbinic Judaism began to emerge. Reading the holy texts—Biblical and rabbinic—was considered crucial, and the emphasis on literacy later led to great successes by the Jewish communities, who were often the most learned and literate in the Gentile society. During the Islamic period, the Jews had unprecedented freedom, and the well-organized Jewish community, which at the time was centered in Baghdad, became the model for later Ashkenazi communities. Charlemagne's reign, starting in 800, created a stable environment which allowed the Jews to move throughout Western Europe, and since then, there have been well-documented Jewish communities in European lands. Great Torah scholars and commentators, such as Rashi, emerged during this time.
During the Crusader period, in the 12th - 14th centuries, Jews fled England, France and Germany and began settling in Eastern European countries, such as Poland, Lithuania, and Russia. References to the "Jews of Ashkenaz" abound in medieval Jewish texts. The Polish Jewish community in the 15th century was the largest Jewish community in the Diaspora, and continued to be so until the tragedy of the Holocaust. After the Holocaust, of the estimated 8.8 million Jews (mostly Ashkenazi) who lived in Europe, approximately 6 million were killed. Many of the survivors fled, immigrating to countries such as Israel and America.
The "Yishuv Hayashan" ("old yishuv") was mainly composed of Sephardim. Yishuv Hayashan refers to the Jewish communities in Israel which predated Zionism and the waves of Aliyah. There were groups of Ashkenazi Jews over the years which had made Aliyah and settled in Israel, but they were by no means the majority.
In 1700, a group of about 1,500 Polish Jews, following the call of Rabbi Yehuda He-Hasid, immigrated to Israel, though many died on the perilous journey. In the 1760s and 1770s, groups of Hasidic Jews settled in Israel, and Mitnadgim (Ashkenazi Jews who opposed Hasidism) arrived in the 1780s. Around 1800, the Perushim, followers of the Vilna Gaon, were the first substantial Ashkenazi group to immigrate to Israel, and they formed the basis for Israeli Ashkenazi communities. Most of the new arrivals lived in the north, in Safed and Tiberias, though a small Ashkenazic community was established in Jerusalem; following a devastating earthquake in Safed in 1836, Jerusalem began to gain prominence as the center of the Yishuv Hayashan.
Ashkenazic Jews were at the forefront of the Zionist movement. The intelligentsia responsible for launching the Zionist movement, including Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kalischer, Leon Pinsker, and later, Theoder Herzl, were all Ashkenazic Jews, influenced by the rising Enlightenment Movement and the persecution of Jews throughout Europe. Ashkenazim formed the basis for Zionist movements such as Hibbat Zion and Bilu, organizations which encouraged and assisted European Jews in making Aliyah. The "First Aliyah," beginning in the 1880s, was mainly comprised of Jews from Eastern Europe, especially from Russia, who were fleeing persecution and economic difficulties, and yearning to settle the land of Israel. The young, idealistic "olim" of the first and second Aliyot were called "haluzim" ("pioneers") and were instrumental in cultivating the land and establishing Jewish communities throughout Israel.
Ashkenazim continue to comprise a large part of immigration to the Holy Land. German Jews immigrated during the 1930s; groups of Soviet Jews arrived en masse throughout the 1980s and early 1990s; and the majority of olim in recent years, especially from North America have been Ashkenazi Jews as well. The political elite of Israel have traditionally been the Ashkenazim, though the powerful Shas party, whose constituents are mainly Sephardim, has changed that dynamic.
Ashkenazi Jews, due in large part to the emphasis placed on literacy and education, have often risen to the top in their society, whether in Europe, America, or Israel. Their achievement and accomplishments are felt in every realm, from the political, to the professional, to the cultural.
Bedouin People
While the term "Bedouin" conjures images of flowing robes and roaming tribes, most Bedouin living in Israel today have become sedentarized, leaving their nomadic lifestyle, moving into houses, and finding employment. But their culture is strong, and thought they might be settled in one place, their tradition has not died out. Read more »
Ethnic GroupsBedouin People
While the term "Bedouin" conjures images of flowing robes and roaming tribes, most Bedouin living in Israel today have become sedentarized, leaving their nomadic lifestyle, moving into houses, and finding employment. But their culture is strong, and thought they might be settled in one place, their tradition has not died out.
The Bedouin tribes originated in the Arabian Peninsula. After the Muslim conquest in the 7th century, tribes began migrating to Israel. Approximately half of those tribal immigrants came to the Negev and to the Galilee from the Arabian Peninsula; farmers from Egypt and tribes-people from Sudan made up the other half. Although Israel does not differentiate between races within Bedouin culture, the Bedouin themselves often differentiate between "black Bedouins" and "white Bedouins." The "white Bedouin" are dark-skinned; the "black Bedouin" are actually of African descent, tribal people who were kidnapped and sold as slaves, eventually being brought to Israel. After Israel became a state, the "black Bedouin" were free, and many chose to live among the "white Bedouin" in towns and villages, although the latter still consider them second class citizens, and marriage between the two groups is still taboo.
Today, there are approximately 170,000 Bedouin in Israel; the majority, 110,000, live in the Negev, 50,000 in the Galilee, and another 10,000 in the central region. They are predominantly Muslim, and place great importance on a code of honor within their society. Bedouin tend to marry within families (first and second cousins) and ideally try to live with three generations together—grandparents and grandchildren living / traveling together.
Once, the Bedouin livelihood depended entirely on their flocks. They moved from place to place, in search of suitable grazing land for their herds. As early as the 19th century, Bedouins living under British rule began to transition to a semi-nomadic lifestyle. In the 1950's and 1960's, as populations grew and pasture land shrunk, large groups of Bedouin left their nomadic lifestyle and settled into towns across the Middle East. Many Bedouin saw the advantages of becoming citizens of a country, and receiving the accompanying benefits, in contrast to their life as roaming, stateless herders. They began to lead a life of farmers, rather than that of shepherds. Today, Bedouin work mostly in agriculture, heavy industry, the building industry, and as drivers.
For the Bedouin, it has not been an easy road to a more settled lifestyle. They have faced problems such as having to relinquish their old way of life, their economy, and customs; dealing with the poverty and high crime rate as they adjust to living in cities; and conflicting with the Israeli government over many of the "unrecognized villages" in which the Bedouin live. However, the government has established a Ministerial Committee for the Advancement of Bedouin Affairs, and pledged billions of NIS in order to find an equitable solution for the Bedouin people. The Galilee Bedouin have traditionally volunteered for the military services, and as a consequence, have an exceptionally good relationship with the state.
Though many of the Bedouin customs are no longer, the tradition of extending hospitality remains strong. Many tourists seek out the unique experience of lodging with the Bedouin—the chance to ride on a camel, eat authentic Bedouin dishes while sitting on a decorative low cushion, and listen to the beautiful strains of music played by the Bedouin host. As the sun sets, a traditional Bedouin storyteller will often rise, ready to share his tales. Many Bedouin sites run bed and breakfasts, where visitors can enjoy the warm hospitality during their travels. In the north, the Shibli tribe, which originated from Yemen and live on the slopes of Mt. Tabor, keep close ties with their Yemenite Jewish cousins. One particular family specializes in pre-wedding henna, the decorative ink used to draw intricate designs on the hands and feet of the bride. Yemenite Jewish brides have been known to visit before their weddings for this unique "makeover."
Although, like many ancient peoples, the Bedouin have had to adapt to modernization and urbanization, traditions and customs—strong familial and tribal ties, extending warm hospitality to guests—still live on within each individual family, continuing to be passed on to the next generation.
The Bedouin tribes originated in the Arabian Peninsula. After the Muslim conquest in the 7th century, tribes began migrating to Israel. Approximately half of those tribal immigrants came to the Negev and to the Galilee from the Arabian Peninsula; farmers from Egypt and tribes-people from Sudan made up the other half. Although Israel does not differentiate between races within Bedouin culture, the Bedouin themselves often differentiate between "black Bedouins" and "white Bedouins." The "white Bedouin" are dark-skinned; the "black Bedouin" are actually of African descent, tribal people who were kidnapped and sold as slaves, eventually being brought to Israel. After Israel became a state, the "black Bedouin" were free, and many chose to live among the "white Bedouin" in towns and villages, although the latter still consider them second class citizens, and marriage between the two groups is still taboo.
Today, there are approximately 170,000 Bedouin in Israel; the majority, 110,000, live in the Negev, 50,000 in the Galilee, and another 10,000 in the central region. They are predominantly Muslim, and place great importance on a code of honor within their society. Bedouin tend to marry within families (first and second cousins) and ideally try to live with three generations together—grandparents and grandchildren living / traveling together.
Once, the Bedouin livelihood depended entirely on their flocks. They moved from place to place, in search of suitable grazing land for their herds. As early as the 19th century, Bedouins living under British rule began to transition to a semi-nomadic lifestyle. In the 1950's and 1960's, as populations grew and pasture land shrunk, large groups of Bedouin left their nomadic lifestyle and settled into towns across the Middle East. Many Bedouin saw the advantages of becoming citizens of a country, and receiving the accompanying benefits, in contrast to their life as roaming, stateless herders. They began to lead a life of farmers, rather than that of shepherds. Today, Bedouin work mostly in agriculture, heavy industry, the building industry, and as drivers.
For the Bedouin, it has not been an easy road to a more settled lifestyle. They have faced problems such as having to relinquish their old way of life, their economy, and customs; dealing with the poverty and high crime rate as they adjust to living in cities; and conflicting with the Israeli government over many of the "unrecognized villages" in which the Bedouin live. However, the government has established a Ministerial Committee for the Advancement of Bedouin Affairs, and pledged billions of NIS in order to find an equitable solution for the Bedouin people. The Galilee Bedouin have traditionally volunteered for the military services, and as a consequence, have an exceptionally good relationship with the state.
Though many of the Bedouin customs are no longer, the tradition of extending hospitality remains strong. Many tourists seek out the unique experience of lodging with the Bedouin—the chance to ride on a camel, eat authentic Bedouin dishes while sitting on a decorative low cushion, and listen to the beautiful strains of music played by the Bedouin host. As the sun sets, a traditional Bedouin storyteller will often rise, ready to share his tales. Many Bedouin sites run bed and breakfasts, where visitors can enjoy the warm hospitality during their travels. In the north, the Shibli tribe, which originated from Yemen and live on the slopes of Mt. Tabor, keep close ties with their Yemenite Jewish cousins. One particular family specializes in pre-wedding henna, the decorative ink used to draw intricate designs on the hands and feet of the bride. Yemenite Jewish brides have been known to visit before their weddings for this unique "makeover."
Although, like many ancient peoples, the Bedouin have had to adapt to modernization and urbanization, traditions and customs—strong familial and tribal ties, extending warm hospitality to guests—still live on within each individual family, continuing to be passed on to the next generation.
Black Hebrews
The Black Hebrews, not to be confused with Ethiopian Jews, are groups of people with African ancestry who believe they are the descendants of the ancient Israelites, namely the Ten Lost Tribes. The groups, with varying degrees of adherence to Jewish law, consider themselves the authentic Jewish people. The communities are mostly situated in America, but one particular group, the African Hebrew Israelites, have become a substantial community in Israel. Read more »
Ethnic GroupsBlack Hebrews
The Black Hebrews, not to be confused with Ethiopian Jews, are groups of people with African ancestry who believe they are the descendants of the ancient Israelites, namely the Ten Lost Tribes. The groups, with varying degrees of adherence to Jewish law, consider themselves the authentic Jewish people. The communities are mostly situated in America, but one particular group, the African Hebrew Israelites, have become a substantial community in Israel.
The Original African Hebrew Israelite Nation of Jerusalem, varyingly referred to as the African Hebrew Israelites, the Hebrew Israeli Community, or Black Jews (though the last term technically encompasses more than just this group), number over 2,000. They live mainly in Dimona, a city in Israel's Negev, with smaller populations in Arad, Mizpe Ramon, and Tiberias.
The group was founded in 1966 in Chicago. A steel worker, Ben Carter, believed he received a vision, in which the Archangel Gabriel revealed to him that the African Americans were descended from the Lost Tribes of the Israelites—specifically, the tribe of Judah—who were exiled from the Holy Land by the Romans, following the destruction of the Second Temple. Carter threw off his "slave name" and adopted the name Ben Ammi Ben-Israel.
The community adopted certain laws and customs of mainstream Judaism. They observe Shabbat and other Biblically-mandated holidays, such as Yom Kippur and Passover. The men attach tzitzit to their shirt, baby boys are circumcised, and husbands and wives adhere to the laws of family purity. Black Hebrews do not follow rabbinical Judaism, but rather, follow a stringent interpretation of Biblical law. For example, Black Hebrews adhere to a strictly vegan diet, based on a passage in Genesis (1:29), which describes Jews eating fruits of the land. They also wear all-cotton clothing, and do not wear leather shoes. Polygamy is allowed; birth control is prohibited. Their way of life includes abstinence from alcohol and drugs, both illegal and pharmaceutical, and a strong emphasis on exercise and well-being.
In 1969, Ben Ami and his followers, after a short stint in Liberia, began immigrating to Israel. They were granted entry on temporary visas, but the Chief Rabbinate ruled that they were not authentic Jews, and therefore could not receive full citizenship status under the Law of Return. The community continued to grow, through their naturally high birthrate and illegal immigration.
In 1990, their status began to change. The Israeli government did not grant them full citizenship, but also did not deport them en masse. They were absorbed slowly, first allowed in through a tourist visa which allowed them to work, until finally, in 2004, they received residency status. They have quickly become a small, but vocal community within Israel. Over 100 members serve in the IDF, where the army has been accommodating to their special needs. Black Hebrews are prominent athletes, mainly in track and field and softball. They have opened a vegan restaurant in Arad, with an adjoining factory for producing vegan products.
The Black Hebrews are famous for their gospel choir, which tours throughout Israel and America. They produce CDs of their unique music, called "Songs of Deliverance." The choir and CDs serve as a source of income for the community. Black Hebrews have even represented Israel in EuroVision, the international music competition.
In February 2005, the Black Hebrews, in conjunction with the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (established by Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.), opened up a conflict-resolution center in Dimona to teach non-violent means of conflict resolution.
The Original African Hebrew Israelite Nation of Jerusalem, varyingly referred to as the African Hebrew Israelites, the Hebrew Israeli Community, or Black Jews (though the last term technically encompasses more than just this group), number over 2,000. They live mainly in Dimona, a city in Israel's Negev, with smaller populations in Arad, Mizpe Ramon, and Tiberias.
The group was founded in 1966 in Chicago. A steel worker, Ben Carter, believed he received a vision, in which the Archangel Gabriel revealed to him that the African Americans were descended from the Lost Tribes of the Israelites—specifically, the tribe of Judah—who were exiled from the Holy Land by the Romans, following the destruction of the Second Temple. Carter threw off his "slave name" and adopted the name Ben Ammi Ben-Israel.
The community adopted certain laws and customs of mainstream Judaism. They observe Shabbat and other Biblically-mandated holidays, such as Yom Kippur and Passover. The men attach tzitzit to their shirt, baby boys are circumcised, and husbands and wives adhere to the laws of family purity. Black Hebrews do not follow rabbinical Judaism, but rather, follow a stringent interpretation of Biblical law. For example, Black Hebrews adhere to a strictly vegan diet, based on a passage in Genesis (1:29), which describes Jews eating fruits of the land. They also wear all-cotton clothing, and do not wear leather shoes. Polygamy is allowed; birth control is prohibited. Their way of life includes abstinence from alcohol and drugs, both illegal and pharmaceutical, and a strong emphasis on exercise and well-being.
In 1969, Ben Ami and his followers, after a short stint in Liberia, began immigrating to Israel. They were granted entry on temporary visas, but the Chief Rabbinate ruled that they were not authentic Jews, and therefore could not receive full citizenship status under the Law of Return. The community continued to grow, through their naturally high birthrate and illegal immigration.
In 1990, their status began to change. The Israeli government did not grant them full citizenship, but also did not deport them en masse. They were absorbed slowly, first allowed in through a tourist visa which allowed them to work, until finally, in 2004, they received residency status. They have quickly become a small, but vocal community within Israel. Over 100 members serve in the IDF, where the army has been accommodating to their special needs. Black Hebrews are prominent athletes, mainly in track and field and softball. They have opened a vegan restaurant in Arad, with an adjoining factory for producing vegan products.
The Black Hebrews are famous for their gospel choir, which tours throughout Israel and America. They produce CDs of their unique music, called "Songs of Deliverance." The choir and CDs serve as a source of income for the community. Black Hebrews have even represented Israel in EuroVision, the international music competition.
In February 2005, the Black Hebrews, in conjunction with the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (established by Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.), opened up a conflict-resolution center in Dimona to teach non-violent means of conflict resolution.
Ethiopian Jews
The story of the Ethiopian Jewish community, called Beta Israel, and their journey to the Holy Land is fascinating. The ancestry of this group is unclear; theories range that they descend from the lost tribe of Dan, which settled in Egypt during the period of the Divided Kingdom; from the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, though no mention of a marriage or sexual relations between them appears in the biblical text; from a community who settled in Egypt following the destruction of the First Temple… Read more »
Ethnic GroupsEthiopian Jews
The story of the Ethiopian Jewish community, called Beta Israel, and their journey to the Holy Land is fascinating. The ancestry of this group is unclear; theories range that they descend from the lost tribe of Dan, which settled in Egypt during the period of the Divided Kingdom; from the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, though no mention of a marriage or sexual relations between them appears in the biblical text; from a community who settled in Egypt following the destruction of the First Temple; or from Ethiopian non-Jews who converted. Despite this uncertain lineage, the Beta Israel have been living in Ethiopia for centuries, unheard of in the outside world, and not knowing themselves that other Jewish communities existed.
A ninth century traveler, known as "Eldad HaDani," was one of the first documented Ethiopian Jews, describing the Beta Israel group in his writings and claiming they were descendants from Dan. A 16th century rabbi, Rabbi David ben Zimra, was the first rabbinical authority to rule this way as well.
In 1796, a Scottish explorer, James Bruce, stumbled upon the Beta Israel during his trek in search of the source of the Nile River. There were approximately 100,000 Beta Israel in Ethiopia at the time. However, that initial contact did not lead to further communication with the community.
The Beta Israel consider the Torah, which they call "Orit," to be the holiest work. The language of their holy writings is Ge'ez. In addition to the Rabbinical Canon, the Beta Israel hold several other books to be sacred, including Enoch and Jubilees. The book Te'ezaza Shabbat (Precepts of Shabbat) is considered holy as well. Since the group was cut off from the Jewish community in pre-Talmudic times, they adhere to precepts such as Shabbat and kashrut, and the women bathe in the ritual bath. However, they developed their own oral tradition, and instead of rabbis, the Kessim (community elders) lead the community. The Beta Israel's religious calendar, set according to a treatise from the 13th century, lists the civil and Jewish dates for the holidays. Beta Israel even have a unique festival, known as Sigd, celebrated on the 29th of Heshvan (approximately October time). Sigd celebrates the Jews receiving the Torah, and the return of the Babylonian exiles under the leadership of Ezra and Nehemiah.
Following in the footsteps of Rabbi David ben Zimra, in 1855 the first Beta Israel visited Israel, meeting with rabbis to discuss the authenticity of the group's Jewish identity. In 1864, the Beta Israel were accepted among mainstream Judaism as Jews, and in 1972, Rabbi Ovadia Yosef, then Israel's Chief Sephardic Rabbi, declared that the Beta Israel were true Jews and the Israeli government had an obligation to assist in their immigration. In 1975, it was declared that the Beta Israel were allowed to immigrate under Israel's Law of Return.
In 1977, Prime Minister Menachem Begin was eager to begin the process of bringing the Ethiopian Jews to Israel. Conditions in Ethiopia were deplorable, with anti-Semitism and forced conscription of young boys adding to the already existing problems of war and famine. As the famine grew more severe, the country was forced to seek assistance from Western nations, thereby allowing those countries to exert some pressure on Ethiopia to allow its Jews to leave. Between 1977 and 1984, approximately 8,000 Ethiopian Jews first journeyed from Ethiopia to Sudan, as Israel did not have full diplomatic relations with Ethiopia, and from there to Israel. The journey was difficult, and it is estimated that approximately half of the would-be immigrants died along the way.
Israel began a more intense immigration effort in 1984, with Operation Moses. Nearly 8,000 Jews, after traveling to Sudan, were secretly airlifted to Israel. However, the operation ended prematurely after a press leak led the Sudanese government to end its agreement with Israel. Despite this, immigration continued at a trickle during Operations Sheba and Joshua in 1985.
Many families had been torn apart during this immigration, as only the able-bodied were encouraged to make the dangerous trek to Sudan. Despite the restrictions on immigration, in November 1990, the Ethiopian government finally relented on the grounds of family reunification. In early 1991, the country erupted in civil war, and freeing the Beta Israel became a priority. The Ethiopian government struck a deal with the United States to allow the Jews to leave in exchange for money and asylum for the fleeing government leaders. Then-Prime Minister Yitzchak Shamir gave special permission for Israel's airline, El-Al, to fly on the Sabbath. The airplanes, whose seats had been removed in order to allow for the maximum number of travelers, flew for thirty-six hours straight and airlifted over 14,000 Ethiopian Jews, bringing them to their new homeland in what became known as Operation Solomon.
Like all ethnic groups struggling to adapt to a new environment, the integration of the Beta Israel has not always been smooth. They have dealt with racism, and the questioning of their Jewish authenticity. They arrived with few job skills, little acquaintance with Western or city life, little Hebrew, and no English. Unlike the Russian immigrants, who in general were able to integrate and find employment, the Ethiopian Jews came from small villages and an agricultural lifestyle, and were ill-suited to the demands of an industrialized nation. Progress has been made; military service, for example, has helped the next generation of Ethiopian Jews integrate. Today, for the most part, young Ethiopian Jews have been assimilated into Israeli society, but there is a generation gap between the newer and older generations.
As the Ethiopian Jews enter their second and third decades in Israel, the process of integration continues. Unemployment and poverty continue to plague the community in comparison with the rest of Israeli society. However, the government is committed to assisting the Israeli Ethiopian community through allocating more resources to schools to help Ethiopian children and providing professional training to the immigrants. An Ethiopian Heritage Museum is planned for Rehovot, the home of many Ethiopian Jews.
In 2009, an Ethiopian immigrant made headlines—Tzion Shenkor, a high-ranking officer in the IDF, became the first battalion commander of Ethiopian descent.
A ninth century traveler, known as "Eldad HaDani," was one of the first documented Ethiopian Jews, describing the Beta Israel group in his writings and claiming they were descendants from Dan. A 16th century rabbi, Rabbi David ben Zimra, was the first rabbinical authority to rule this way as well.
In 1796, a Scottish explorer, James Bruce, stumbled upon the Beta Israel during his trek in search of the source of the Nile River. There were approximately 100,000 Beta Israel in Ethiopia at the time. However, that initial contact did not lead to further communication with the community.
The Beta Israel consider the Torah, which they call "Orit," to be the holiest work. The language of their holy writings is Ge'ez. In addition to the Rabbinical Canon, the Beta Israel hold several other books to be sacred, including Enoch and Jubilees. The book Te'ezaza Shabbat (Precepts of Shabbat) is considered holy as well. Since the group was cut off from the Jewish community in pre-Talmudic times, they adhere to precepts such as Shabbat and kashrut, and the women bathe in the ritual bath. However, they developed their own oral tradition, and instead of rabbis, the Kessim (community elders) lead the community. The Beta Israel's religious calendar, set according to a treatise from the 13th century, lists the civil and Jewish dates for the holidays. Beta Israel even have a unique festival, known as Sigd, celebrated on the 29th of Heshvan (approximately October time). Sigd celebrates the Jews receiving the Torah, and the return of the Babylonian exiles under the leadership of Ezra and Nehemiah.
Following in the footsteps of Rabbi David ben Zimra, in 1855 the first Beta Israel visited Israel, meeting with rabbis to discuss the authenticity of the group's Jewish identity. In 1864, the Beta Israel were accepted among mainstream Judaism as Jews, and in 1972, Rabbi Ovadia Yosef, then Israel's Chief Sephardic Rabbi, declared that the Beta Israel were true Jews and the Israeli government had an obligation to assist in their immigration. In 1975, it was declared that the Beta Israel were allowed to immigrate under Israel's Law of Return.
In 1977, Prime Minister Menachem Begin was eager to begin the process of bringing the Ethiopian Jews to Israel. Conditions in Ethiopia were deplorable, with anti-Semitism and forced conscription of young boys adding to the already existing problems of war and famine. As the famine grew more severe, the country was forced to seek assistance from Western nations, thereby allowing those countries to exert some pressure on Ethiopia to allow its Jews to leave. Between 1977 and 1984, approximately 8,000 Ethiopian Jews first journeyed from Ethiopia to Sudan, as Israel did not have full diplomatic relations with Ethiopia, and from there to Israel. The journey was difficult, and it is estimated that approximately half of the would-be immigrants died along the way.
Israel began a more intense immigration effort in 1984, with Operation Moses. Nearly 8,000 Jews, after traveling to Sudan, were secretly airlifted to Israel. However, the operation ended prematurely after a press leak led the Sudanese government to end its agreement with Israel. Despite this, immigration continued at a trickle during Operations Sheba and Joshua in 1985.
Many families had been torn apart during this immigration, as only the able-bodied were encouraged to make the dangerous trek to Sudan. Despite the restrictions on immigration, in November 1990, the Ethiopian government finally relented on the grounds of family reunification. In early 1991, the country erupted in civil war, and freeing the Beta Israel became a priority. The Ethiopian government struck a deal with the United States to allow the Jews to leave in exchange for money and asylum for the fleeing government leaders. Then-Prime Minister Yitzchak Shamir gave special permission for Israel's airline, El-Al, to fly on the Sabbath. The airplanes, whose seats had been removed in order to allow for the maximum number of travelers, flew for thirty-six hours straight and airlifted over 14,000 Ethiopian Jews, bringing them to their new homeland in what became known as Operation Solomon.
Like all ethnic groups struggling to adapt to a new environment, the integration of the Beta Israel has not always been smooth. They have dealt with racism, and the questioning of their Jewish authenticity. They arrived with few job skills, little acquaintance with Western or city life, little Hebrew, and no English. Unlike the Russian immigrants, who in general were able to integrate and find employment, the Ethiopian Jews came from small villages and an agricultural lifestyle, and were ill-suited to the demands of an industrialized nation. Progress has been made; military service, for example, has helped the next generation of Ethiopian Jews integrate. Today, for the most part, young Ethiopian Jews have been assimilated into Israeli society, but there is a generation gap between the newer and older generations.
As the Ethiopian Jews enter their second and third decades in Israel, the process of integration continues. Unemployment and poverty continue to plague the community in comparison with the rest of Israeli society. However, the government is committed to assisting the Israeli Ethiopian community through allocating more resources to schools to help Ethiopian children and providing professional training to the immigrants. An Ethiopian Heritage Museum is planned for Rehovot, the home of many Ethiopian Jews.
In 2009, an Ethiopian immigrant made headlines—Tzion Shenkor, a high-ranking officer in the IDF, became the first battalion commander of Ethiopian descent.
Indian Jews
Jewish groups have existed in India for centuries, possibly arriving as early as the end of the reign of King Solomon, when the Israelite kingdom split into two. Others claim to be descendants of the Jews exiled following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Most of the Indian Jewish community immigrated to Israel after 1948, when Israel declared its independence. Read more »
Ethnic GroupsIndian Jews
Jewish groups have existed in India for centuries, possibly arriving as early as the end of the reign of King Solomon, when the Israelite kingdom split into two. Others claim to be descendants of the Jews exiled following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Most of the Indian Jewish community immigrated to Israel after 1948, when Israel declared its independence.
The Cochin Jews represent India's oldest Jewish community. Within the Cochin community are three distinct groups: "Black Jews," who most likely arrived during and after the reign of King Solomon; "White Jews," also called "Pardesi Jews," arriving later from Holland and Spain, and speaking the Ladino language; and "Brown Jews," Sephardim arriving from Spain and Portugal in the 15th century. A synagogue built by the Pardesi Jews in the 16th century is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth nations and a major tourist attraction in India. The Cochin Jews, who did not adhere to the Talmudic prohibition against women singing in public, have a rich heritage of women singing traditional songs and prayers in the Judeo-Malayam language. As Israel and India gained independence simultaneously, the Indian Jews found their position in India uncomfortable, as they were resented for not actively siding with India during the struggle for independence. In addition, strong feelings of pride for Israel were stirred in the Indian Jews, and the community immigrated en masse to Israel after 1948. They live mainly in the Moshav of Nevatim in the Negev; the moshav of Yuval in the north; the Jerusalem neighborhood of Katamon; Beersheba; and Dimona.
The Bene Israel claim to be descended from a group of oil pressers living in the Galilee in the 2nd century BCE. They fled, seeking to escape persecution, and were shipwrecked. The survivors started anew in India. They kept Shabbat, kashrut, circumcision, and the Sabbath, and believe they were descended from the Kohanim (Jewish priests). Baghdadi traders arriving in India in the 18th century recognized the Bene Israel as Jews, due to their observances. The Bene Israel were subsequently taught mainstream Judaism by teachers from Baghdad and Cochin. The Bene Israel prospered in India under British rule, and after India gained its independence, most immigrated to Israel, like the Cochin Jews. The Bene Israel were declared "full Jews" by the Israeli rabbinate in 1964, thereby easing their immigration under Israel's Law of Return. Of the 20,000 Bene Israel residing in India prior to 1948, a little under 5,000 remain today.
At the end of 18th century, a group of Jewish traders came to Calcutta, India. The Jews of Calcutta prospered under British rule as well. They were closely identified with the British, which caused unease in the community following World War II, with the rise of Indian nationalism. They, too, immigrated to Israel. Of the 5,000 Calcutta Jews living there during the time of the British, approximately half remain.
The Bnei Menashe is a group of about 9,000 members from the Chin-Kuki-Mizo tribe. They claimed to be descended from the Lost Tribes of Israel, and for centuries they kept Jewish traditions and customs. A traditional harvest festival song has strong parallels to the events of the Exodus from Egypt, including a red sea that swallows the enemies, and two pillars, one of cloud and one of fire, which lead the people. The tribe was mostly converted to Christianity in the 19th century.
In 1951, according to the Bnei Menashe, a Pentecostalist called either Chalianthanga or Mela Chala received a vision, exhorting the group to return to their pre-Christian roots and to their homeland, Israel. Some of the community began practicing Judaism again. Though the length and difficulty of the journey to Israel deterred many from immigrating, the number of Bnei Menashe who began practicing Judaism in India continued to rise.
In 1979, Rabbi Eliyahu Avichail and his organization, Amishav ("My Nation Returns"), dedicated to returning the Lost Tribes to Israel, found out about a group of Jews living in India. After investigating their claims, he declared them to be fully Jewish descendants of Menashe, son of Joseph. Amishav began the process to fully convert them and speed their immigration to Israel, assisted by the International Fellowship of Christians and Jews. Another group, Shavei Israel, also assisted the Bnei Menashe in their conversion and immigration. In 2005, a mikvah was built in India to help speed the conversion process.
Since the 1970s, approximately 1,700 Bnei Menashe immigrated, mainly settling in the contested areas of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In 2005, the Bnei Menashe, due to their unshakable dedication and belief, were declared full Jews by the Sephardic Chief Rabbi in Israel. However, they were hit hard by the 2005 disengagement from Gaza and parts of the West Bank. India then began to protest the mass conversion of its citizens, and Israel halted conversion. Two more groups of around 200 immigrated, settling in the north, but the controversy and politics surrounding the conversion and immigration, both in Israel and in India, is making it more difficult to bring the rest of the Bnei Menashe to their homeland.
The Cochin Jews represent India's oldest Jewish community. Within the Cochin community are three distinct groups: "Black Jews," who most likely arrived during and after the reign of King Solomon; "White Jews," also called "Pardesi Jews," arriving later from Holland and Spain, and speaking the Ladino language; and "Brown Jews," Sephardim arriving from Spain and Portugal in the 15th century. A synagogue built by the Pardesi Jews in the 16th century is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth nations and a major tourist attraction in India. The Cochin Jews, who did not adhere to the Talmudic prohibition against women singing in public, have a rich heritage of women singing traditional songs and prayers in the Judeo-Malayam language. As Israel and India gained independence simultaneously, the Indian Jews found their position in India uncomfortable, as they were resented for not actively siding with India during the struggle for independence. In addition, strong feelings of pride for Israel were stirred in the Indian Jews, and the community immigrated en masse to Israel after 1948. They live mainly in the Moshav of Nevatim in the Negev; the moshav of Yuval in the north; the Jerusalem neighborhood of Katamon; Beersheba; and Dimona.
The Bene Israel claim to be descended from a group of oil pressers living in the Galilee in the 2nd century BCE. They fled, seeking to escape persecution, and were shipwrecked. The survivors started anew in India. They kept Shabbat, kashrut, circumcision, and the Sabbath, and believe they were descended from the Kohanim (Jewish priests). Baghdadi traders arriving in India in the 18th century recognized the Bene Israel as Jews, due to their observances. The Bene Israel were subsequently taught mainstream Judaism by teachers from Baghdad and Cochin. The Bene Israel prospered in India under British rule, and after India gained its independence, most immigrated to Israel, like the Cochin Jews. The Bene Israel were declared "full Jews" by the Israeli rabbinate in 1964, thereby easing their immigration under Israel's Law of Return. Of the 20,000 Bene Israel residing in India prior to 1948, a little under 5,000 remain today.
At the end of 18th century, a group of Jewish traders came to Calcutta, India. The Jews of Calcutta prospered under British rule as well. They were closely identified with the British, which caused unease in the community following World War II, with the rise of Indian nationalism. They, too, immigrated to Israel. Of the 5,000 Calcutta Jews living there during the time of the British, approximately half remain.
The Bnei Menashe is a group of about 9,000 members from the Chin-Kuki-Mizo tribe. They claimed to be descended from the Lost Tribes of Israel, and for centuries they kept Jewish traditions and customs. A traditional harvest festival song has strong parallels to the events of the Exodus from Egypt, including a red sea that swallows the enemies, and two pillars, one of cloud and one of fire, which lead the people. The tribe was mostly converted to Christianity in the 19th century.
In 1951, according to the Bnei Menashe, a Pentecostalist called either Chalianthanga or Mela Chala received a vision, exhorting the group to return to their pre-Christian roots and to their homeland, Israel. Some of the community began practicing Judaism again. Though the length and difficulty of the journey to Israel deterred many from immigrating, the number of Bnei Menashe who began practicing Judaism in India continued to rise.
In 1979, Rabbi Eliyahu Avichail and his organization, Amishav ("My Nation Returns"), dedicated to returning the Lost Tribes to Israel, found out about a group of Jews living in India. After investigating their claims, he declared them to be fully Jewish descendants of Menashe, son of Joseph. Amishav began the process to fully convert them and speed their immigration to Israel, assisted by the International Fellowship of Christians and Jews. Another group, Shavei Israel, also assisted the Bnei Menashe in their conversion and immigration. In 2005, a mikvah was built in India to help speed the conversion process.
Since the 1970s, approximately 1,700 Bnei Menashe immigrated, mainly settling in the contested areas of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In 2005, the Bnei Menashe, due to their unshakable dedication and belief, were declared full Jews by the Sephardic Chief Rabbi in Israel. However, they were hit hard by the 2005 disengagement from Gaza and parts of the West Bank. India then began to protest the mass conversion of its citizens, and Israel halted conversion. Two more groups of around 200 immigrated, settling in the north, but the controversy and politics surrounding the conversion and immigration, both in Israel and in India, is making it more difficult to bring the rest of the Bnei Menashe to their homeland.
Israeli Arabs
Approximately 20% of Israel's citizens are Arabs, totaling over one million inhabitants. Of these 20%, the majority consider themselves Muslim. "Israeli Arabs" generally refers to Israeli citizens who are not Jewish, and whose culture and ancestry is Arabic. (Jews from Arabic countries are considered "Jews," not "Israeli Arabs.") Read more »
Ethnic GroupsIsraeli Arabs
Approximately 20% of Israel's citizens are Arabs, totaling over one million inhabitants. Of these 20%, the majority consider themselves Muslim. "Israeli Arabs" generally refers to Israeli citizens who are not Jewish, and whose culture and ancestry is Arabic. (Jews from Arabic countries are considered "Jews," not "Israeli Arabs.") These Israeli Arabs are citizens of Israel, voting in elections and benefiting from all the rights that come along with citizenship. The Israeli Citizenship Bureau counts among the 20% the Israeli Arabs living in East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights. However, only a few Arab residents of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights' Druze community accepted full Israeli citizenship.
Although Israeli Arabs are overwhelmingly Muslim, there are other groups that fall within the category as well. The second largest group of Israeli Arabs is Christian Arabs, mostly affiliated with the Greek Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Roman Catholic churches. The Druze are classified as a separate religious community. Within the Muslim sector are Bedouins and the Circassians, Sunni Muslims with their own distinct identity and heritage. They participate in Israel's affairs without assimilating into either the Jewish or Muslim societies.
Today's Arab citizens are composed mainly of the Arabs who remained in Israel during the 1948 War and the descendants of those Arabs. Before and during the war, about 80% of the Arab population fled for neighboring countries; only 156,000 out of a total 950,000 remained. Other Arab citizens include those living in the Gaza Strip and West Bank who obtained Israeli citizenship under family reunification laws. The official language of Arab Israelis is Arabic, specifically the Palestinian Arabic dialect. Most Israeli Arabs, unlike Palestinians, have at least functional knowledge of modern Hebrew.
Following the 1948 War, Israel placed restrictive measures on its Arab citizens; however, in 1966, the government began to ease those restrictions and grant Arab citizens the same right as Israeli citizens. The Arab population is represented in Knesset through the Arab parties, which oversee administrative affairs in the Arab towns and villages. The main difference between the Jewish and Arab populations of Israel is that while army service is compulsory for Jewish young men and women, the Arabs are exempt from military duty, out of consideration for the Arab population in light of the continuing Arab-Israeli conflict. Druze and Circassians, however, are drafted, at the behest of their community leaders, and Bedouin often volunteer.
On the whole, the Arab citizens have not assimilated into Israeli society. They live in their own enclaves, run their own school systems, and speak Arabic. Though they accept Israeli citizenship, they do not consider themselves "Israeli," identifying themselves either as "Palestinian" or "Arab." But Arabs living in Israel have, on the whole, a higher standard of living than their Arabic neighbors living in other countries. Israel is one of few Middle Eastern states where women are equal, including the right to vote and hold office, and legislation here prevents child marriage.
Literacy rates and years of schooling have dramatically increased, infant mortality rates have dropped by 78%, and employment is up as well. The Israeli government, though, still has much to do to close the gap between the Jewish and Arab citizens of its country. To meet that challenge, the government has developed a plan to allocate more resources to the Israeli-Arab sectors of society.
The Palestinian people, in contrast, living in the West Bank and Gaza Strip are not citizens of Israel. They are governed by the Palestinian Authority. Most are Muslim, though there is a small Palestinian Christian community, and the predominant language is Arabic.
Although Israeli Arabs are overwhelmingly Muslim, there are other groups that fall within the category as well. The second largest group of Israeli Arabs is Christian Arabs, mostly affiliated with the Greek Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Roman Catholic churches. The Druze are classified as a separate religious community. Within the Muslim sector are Bedouins and the Circassians, Sunni Muslims with their own distinct identity and heritage. They participate in Israel's affairs without assimilating into either the Jewish or Muslim societies.
Today's Arab citizens are composed mainly of the Arabs who remained in Israel during the 1948 War and the descendants of those Arabs. Before and during the war, about 80% of the Arab population fled for neighboring countries; only 156,000 out of a total 950,000 remained. Other Arab citizens include those living in the Gaza Strip and West Bank who obtained Israeli citizenship under family reunification laws. The official language of Arab Israelis is Arabic, specifically the Palestinian Arabic dialect. Most Israeli Arabs, unlike Palestinians, have at least functional knowledge of modern Hebrew.
Following the 1948 War, Israel placed restrictive measures on its Arab citizens; however, in 1966, the government began to ease those restrictions and grant Arab citizens the same right as Israeli citizens. The Arab population is represented in Knesset through the Arab parties, which oversee administrative affairs in the Arab towns and villages. The main difference between the Jewish and Arab populations of Israel is that while army service is compulsory for Jewish young men and women, the Arabs are exempt from military duty, out of consideration for the Arab population in light of the continuing Arab-Israeli conflict. Druze and Circassians, however, are drafted, at the behest of their community leaders, and Bedouin often volunteer.
On the whole, the Arab citizens have not assimilated into Israeli society. They live in their own enclaves, run their own school systems, and speak Arabic. Though they accept Israeli citizenship, they do not consider themselves "Israeli," identifying themselves either as "Palestinian" or "Arab." But Arabs living in Israel have, on the whole, a higher standard of living than their Arabic neighbors living in other countries. Israel is one of few Middle Eastern states where women are equal, including the right to vote and hold office, and legislation here prevents child marriage.
Literacy rates and years of schooling have dramatically increased, infant mortality rates have dropped by 78%, and employment is up as well. The Israeli government, though, still has much to do to close the gap between the Jewish and Arab citizens of its country. To meet that challenge, the government has developed a plan to allocate more resources to the Israeli-Arab sectors of society.
The Palestinian people, in contrast, living in the West Bank and Gaza Strip are not citizens of Israel. They are governed by the Palestinian Authority. Most are Muslim, though there is a small Palestinian Christian community, and the predominant language is Arabic.
Russian Jews
In the early 20th century, the official Soviet Communist movement condemned Zionism, though for a short time in the 1940's, despite the ideological differences, Stalin became pro-Zionist. He considered that the new country, Israel, would likely be socialist and therefore help bring an end to British imperialism. Read more »
Ethnic GroupsRussian Jews
In the early 20th century, the official Soviet Communist movement condemned Zionism, though for a short time in the 1940's, despite the ideological differences, Stalin became pro-Zionist. He considered that the new country, Israel, would likely be socialist and therefore help bring an end to British imperialism. During the 1947 UN Partition Plan, the Soviet Union was in favor of the two-state solution, and implied it would support Israel and a Jewish state. In fact, the Soviet Union was one of the first countries to recognize Israel after Israel declared its independence.
That support, however, was short-lived. During the 1950's, the Soviet Union began to side with the Arab world, and throughout the Cold War, the Soviets unequivocally supported the Arab cause. As Israel's ties with the United States grew stronger, the Soviet Union declared Zionism as an "ideological enemy."
Jews have a long history of persecution in Russia. In 1881, during the reign of Czar Alexander III, pogroms unleashed on the community, which had been unjustly blamed for the assassination of Alexander II, destroyed thousands of Jewish homes. The pogroms affected over 160 towns throughout Russia, where rioters wiped out homes and businesses, injured countless Jews and reduced many to abject poverty. Pogroms continued over the next few years, often with tacit government acknowledgement. The persecution and rioting led to nearly 2 million Russian Jews emigrating between 1880 and 1920. While most fled to America, a large number arrived in Israel. Russian members of Bilu and Hovevei Zion comprised the First Aliyah, determined to escape life in Russia and settle the Jewish homeland.
Jews figured prominently in the Russian Revolution, and gained prominence in Lenin's regime. Lenin opposed anti-Semitism, claiming that the enemy of the people was capitalism, not the Jews. However, the economic situation in the USSR was not favorable for the Jews, and as Zionism took hold, persecution increased. Stalin recommended creating a "Soviet Zion" near Russia's far eastern border, hoping to offset the Zionist aspirations, while keeping the Jews within his own parameters of nationality. During World War II, Stalin conducted mass deportations to Siberia, changing the demographic map of the Soviet Union. Jews were among the groups exiled; the cited reasons for the deportations were separatism, resistance to Soviet rule and collaboration with the Germans. Later, in the 1950's, under Nikita Khrushchev, most of the groups were allowed to return. Deportation to Siberia had been a popular use of punishment since the 17th century. In anti-Semitic czarist Russia, Jews were frequently exiled to Siberia and sent to forced labor camps.
Jews in Russia were persecuted, banned from universities and job positions, and Jewish organizations and synagogues were closed down. Anti-Semitism soon became deeply ingrained in Soviet society. Following the Six Day War, in 1967, the Soviet Union launched a propaganda campaign, portraying Zionists as engaged in worldwide conspiracy, a la the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which experienced a revival. Jews were isolated behind the Iron Curtain, and aliyah was difficult, although groups were established to assist the Jews living there.
Following the Six Day War, the USSR broke off any diplomatic relations with Israel. Soviet Jews were persecuted and harassed, and living a Jewish life in Russia had become nearly impossible. The rise of anti-Semitism combined with newfound feelings of pride for the Israeli state—and alienation from their home country, which supported the Arabs—awoke feelings of pride in Soviet Jews that led to a desire to return to the Jewish Homeland.
Leaving the USSR, however, was no easy task, with long wait times, intrusive documents, and high fees. However, emigration became slightly easier as the USSR weighed the benefits of ridding themselves of the Zionists and at the same time, improving their relations with the West. In 1970, the USSR experienced an embarrassing hijacking affair, involving "refuseniks"—those denied permission to emigrate—who hijacked a small aircraft, intending to pilot it to Sweden. The subsequent media attention shed light on the deplorable conditions of Jews, which in turn spurred the USSR to ease its emigration laws.
During the 1970's, approximately 250,000 Jews left the USSR, with around 140,000 coming to Israel. These immigrants felt strong ties with the land of Israel, and placed a high priority on learning Hebrew. The Israeli government offered free Ulpan (Hebrew-language courses) to speed their absorption.
In the late 1980's, under the more progressive leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev, emigrations laws eased and Soviet Jews began arriving in Israel en masse. The United States had also closed its gates to Soviet immigrants, while Israel continued to receive them unconditionally, thereby increasing the number of immigrants to Israel. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, even more immigrants arrived in Israel. It is estimated that between the years 1989 - 1996, approximately 700,000 Soviet Jews arrived on the shores of Israel.
The government immediately began finding a solution to the severe housing shortage which accompanied this rapid influx of Jews. Housing projects were initiated, and large caravan sites were erected, in order to provide some sort of shelter. Many of the new immigrants had difficulties finding jobs, and chose to live and work in their own sheltered enclave with other Soviet Jews instead of assimilating with Israeli culture. The unique situation of the Soviet immigrants—reluctant to assimilate, but desiring political power—led to the growth of "Russian parties" in Israeli politics. Yisrael Ba'Aliyah became the most popular of these parties, under the leadership of former Soviet refusenik / dissident, Natan Sharansky.
In 2003, it was integrated into the Likud party, which many, including Sharansky, saw a positive step, indicating its members' integration into society. Today, the Yisrael Beiteinu Party, led by Avigdor Lieberman, is the party most closely associated with the Russian population.
The Russian immigrants have been one of Israel's greatest success stories. Valuing education and culture and working feverishly to get ahead, often at jobs they were overqualified for, the population as a whole became acclimated within less than two decades and have become a major political force. The Russian population has adopted Hebrew and Israeli culture whole-heartedly and has integrated themselves into the workplace—especially in the fields of sports education, music, science, hi-tech, and medicine—and the public sphere at every level, already, within a generation, on the contributing end of society.
That support, however, was short-lived. During the 1950's, the Soviet Union began to side with the Arab world, and throughout the Cold War, the Soviets unequivocally supported the Arab cause. As Israel's ties with the United States grew stronger, the Soviet Union declared Zionism as an "ideological enemy."
Jews have a long history of persecution in Russia. In 1881, during the reign of Czar Alexander III, pogroms unleashed on the community, which had been unjustly blamed for the assassination of Alexander II, destroyed thousands of Jewish homes. The pogroms affected over 160 towns throughout Russia, where rioters wiped out homes and businesses, injured countless Jews and reduced many to abject poverty. Pogroms continued over the next few years, often with tacit government acknowledgement. The persecution and rioting led to nearly 2 million Russian Jews emigrating between 1880 and 1920. While most fled to America, a large number arrived in Israel. Russian members of Bilu and Hovevei Zion comprised the First Aliyah, determined to escape life in Russia and settle the Jewish homeland.
Jews figured prominently in the Russian Revolution, and gained prominence in Lenin's regime. Lenin opposed anti-Semitism, claiming that the enemy of the people was capitalism, not the Jews. However, the economic situation in the USSR was not favorable for the Jews, and as Zionism took hold, persecution increased. Stalin recommended creating a "Soviet Zion" near Russia's far eastern border, hoping to offset the Zionist aspirations, while keeping the Jews within his own parameters of nationality. During World War II, Stalin conducted mass deportations to Siberia, changing the demographic map of the Soviet Union. Jews were among the groups exiled; the cited reasons for the deportations were separatism, resistance to Soviet rule and collaboration with the Germans. Later, in the 1950's, under Nikita Khrushchev, most of the groups were allowed to return. Deportation to Siberia had been a popular use of punishment since the 17th century. In anti-Semitic czarist Russia, Jews were frequently exiled to Siberia and sent to forced labor camps.
Jews in Russia were persecuted, banned from universities and job positions, and Jewish organizations and synagogues were closed down. Anti-Semitism soon became deeply ingrained in Soviet society. Following the Six Day War, in 1967, the Soviet Union launched a propaganda campaign, portraying Zionists as engaged in worldwide conspiracy, a la the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which experienced a revival. Jews were isolated behind the Iron Curtain, and aliyah was difficult, although groups were established to assist the Jews living there.
Following the Six Day War, the USSR broke off any diplomatic relations with Israel. Soviet Jews were persecuted and harassed, and living a Jewish life in Russia had become nearly impossible. The rise of anti-Semitism combined with newfound feelings of pride for the Israeli state—and alienation from their home country, which supported the Arabs—awoke feelings of pride in Soviet Jews that led to a desire to return to the Jewish Homeland.
Leaving the USSR, however, was no easy task, with long wait times, intrusive documents, and high fees. However, emigration became slightly easier as the USSR weighed the benefits of ridding themselves of the Zionists and at the same time, improving their relations with the West. In 1970, the USSR experienced an embarrassing hijacking affair, involving "refuseniks"—those denied permission to emigrate—who hijacked a small aircraft, intending to pilot it to Sweden. The subsequent media attention shed light on the deplorable conditions of Jews, which in turn spurred the USSR to ease its emigration laws.
During the 1970's, approximately 250,000 Jews left the USSR, with around 140,000 coming to Israel. These immigrants felt strong ties with the land of Israel, and placed a high priority on learning Hebrew. The Israeli government offered free Ulpan (Hebrew-language courses) to speed their absorption.
In the late 1980's, under the more progressive leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev, emigrations laws eased and Soviet Jews began arriving in Israel en masse. The United States had also closed its gates to Soviet immigrants, while Israel continued to receive them unconditionally, thereby increasing the number of immigrants to Israel. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, even more immigrants arrived in Israel. It is estimated that between the years 1989 - 1996, approximately 700,000 Soviet Jews arrived on the shores of Israel.
The government immediately began finding a solution to the severe housing shortage which accompanied this rapid influx of Jews. Housing projects were initiated, and large caravan sites were erected, in order to provide some sort of shelter. Many of the new immigrants had difficulties finding jobs, and chose to live and work in their own sheltered enclave with other Soviet Jews instead of assimilating with Israeli culture. The unique situation of the Soviet immigrants—reluctant to assimilate, but desiring political power—led to the growth of "Russian parties" in Israeli politics. Yisrael Ba'Aliyah became the most popular of these parties, under the leadership of former Soviet refusenik / dissident, Natan Sharansky.
In 2003, it was integrated into the Likud party, which many, including Sharansky, saw a positive step, indicating its members' integration into society. Today, the Yisrael Beiteinu Party, led by Avigdor Lieberman, is the party most closely associated with the Russian population.
The Russian immigrants have been one of Israel's greatest success stories. Valuing education and culture and working feverishly to get ahead, often at jobs they were overqualified for, the population as a whole became acclimated within less than two decades and have become a major political force. The Russian population has adopted Hebrew and Israeli culture whole-heartedly and has integrated themselves into the workplace—especially in the fields of sports education, music, science, hi-tech, and medicine—and the public sphere at every level, already, within a generation, on the contributing end of society.
Sephardic Jews
Sephardic Jewry, in the most traditional sense of the term, refers to the group of Jews who originated on the Iberian Peninsula, living in Spain and Portugal. Even today, "Sepharad" is the Hebrew word for Spain. Many Sephardic Jews are descendants of those Jews exiled from Spain and Portugal during the end of the 15th century. Read more »
Ethnic GroupsSephardic Jews
Sephardic Jewry, in the most traditional sense of the term, refers to the group of Jews who originated on the Iberian Peninsula, living in Spain and Portugal. Even today, "Sepharad" is the Hebrew word for Spain. Many Sephardic Jews are descendants of those Jews exiled from Spain and Portugal during the end of the 15th century. While Jews had lived in relative peace and calm in those countries during the Middle Ages, under Muslim rule—even experiencing a Golden Age—during the reconquista, when Christianity grabbed a foothold in the peninsula, the tide turned against the Jews. During the Spanish Inquisition and Spanish Expulsion, Jews were given the option of conversion or expulsion. Many fled, unwilling to give up their faith, and settled in other parts of the Ottoman Empire; even among the converted—called crypto-Jews or Conversos—were those that adhered to their Jewish faith in private, and many of their descendants returned to their Jewish roots.
Today, the term Sephardic Jewry refers not only to those descendants of Spanish Jewry, but is broadened to include Jews of Asian or African origin, or Jews who follow Sephardic customs and liturgy. Approximately half of Israel's Jewish population is Sephardic. Another broad term which has been used to describe Jews of non-Ashkenazic descent that are also not from Spain or Portugal is "Mizrahim," and includes Jews from Yemen, North Africa, Iraq, Iran, and India. Many Sephardic Jews speak a dialect called Ladino, or Judeo-Spanish, although the language is becoming less and less frequently used.
While small groups of Sephardic Jews had been living in the Holy Land for centuries, groups began immigrating en masse in the late 19th century. From 1881 - 1914, about 10% of Yemen's Jewish population immigrated to Israel. The Ottoman Empire was relatively lax about travel, and the opening of the Suez Canal shortened the journey between Arabia and Palestine. Most of these Yemenite Jews moved into Jaffa and Jerusalem.
Operation Magic Carpet airlifted most of Yemen's Jews to Israel. Following the UN Partition Plan in 1947, Arabs in Yemen rioted, killing over eighty people and essentially demolishing the Jewish community, as homes and businesses were completely destroyed. Between 1949 and 1950, the new Israeli government responded to this tragedy by secretly airlifting nearly 50,000 Jews from Yemen and bringing them to Israel. Most Yemenite Jews had never seen an airplane before. Upon their arrival, however, they were placed in barely tolerable transit camps, in which they often lived for years. Most lost their traditions and way of life, and were "modernized" in order to fit into Israeli society.
Sephardic Jews from the tiny country of Morocco also immigrated in droves to Israel after 1948. In the early 1950s, violence from the Arab community in response to the Israeli victory, combined with tensions as Morocco sought its own independence from France, combined to make life for Moroccan Jews very difficult. Between 1954 and 1955, with the help of the Jewish Agency, nearly 35,000 Moroccan Jews settled in Israel. Another 30,000 arrived between 1956 - 1961. After the ship "Egoz" sank and its forty-three immigrants drowned, the plight of Moroccan Jewry finally caught the attention of the world. The king of Morocco, under international pressure, tacitly agreed to allow immigration to continue, and another 80,000 Jews arrived.
Today, the term Sephardic Jewry refers not only to those descendants of Spanish Jewry, but is broadened to include Jews of Asian or African origin, or Jews who follow Sephardic customs and liturgy. Approximately half of Israel's Jewish population is Sephardic. Another broad term which has been used to describe Jews of non-Ashkenazic descent that are also not from Spain or Portugal is "Mizrahim," and includes Jews from Yemen, North Africa, Iraq, Iran, and India. Many Sephardic Jews speak a dialect called Ladino, or Judeo-Spanish, although the language is becoming less and less frequently used.
While small groups of Sephardic Jews had been living in the Holy Land for centuries, groups began immigrating en masse in the late 19th century. From 1881 - 1914, about 10% of Yemen's Jewish population immigrated to Israel. The Ottoman Empire was relatively lax about travel, and the opening of the Suez Canal shortened the journey between Arabia and Palestine. Most of these Yemenite Jews moved into Jaffa and Jerusalem.
Operation Magic Carpet airlifted most of Yemen's Jews to Israel. Following the UN Partition Plan in 1947, Arabs in Yemen rioted, killing over eighty people and essentially demolishing the Jewish community, as homes and businesses were completely destroyed. Between 1949 and 1950, the new Israeli government responded to this tragedy by secretly airlifting nearly 50,000 Jews from Yemen and bringing them to Israel. Most Yemenite Jews had never seen an airplane before. Upon their arrival, however, they were placed in barely tolerable transit camps, in which they often lived for years. Most lost their traditions and way of life, and were "modernized" in order to fit into Israeli society.
Sephardic Jews from the tiny country of Morocco also immigrated in droves to Israel after 1948. In the early 1950s, violence from the Arab community in response to the Israeli victory, combined with tensions as Morocco sought its own independence from France, combined to make life for Moroccan Jews very difficult. Between 1954 and 1955, with the help of the Jewish Agency, nearly 35,000 Moroccan Jews settled in Israel. Another 30,000 arrived between 1956 - 1961. After the ship "Egoz" sank and its forty-three immigrants drowned, the plight of Moroccan Jewry finally caught the attention of the world. The king of Morocco, under international pressure, tacitly agreed to allow immigration to continue, and another 80,000 Jews arrived.
Religion in the Holy Land
Israel, while the Jewish State, is the cradle of the world's three monotheistic faiths: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Today, all three religious groups have roots, communities, and holy sites in Israel—as do other, newer faiths or offshoots. Read more about religious life in the modern Holy land here »
Israel's impact on the world
For a country with a relatively tiny population and size, Israel has rather a disproportionate impact on the world: Israeli researchers have produced advances in medicine, industry, agriculture, technology, and science that have saved lives, expanded knowledge, and broadened horizons around the world. Read more about these innovations, along with the unique role Israel plays in disasters and crisis response around the world. Read more »
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