About IsraelHistory of Israel

The columnist Charles Krauthammer once said about the history of Israel, "Israel is the very embodiment of Jewish continuity: It is the only nation on earth that inhabits the same land, bears the same name, speaks the same language, and worships the same God that it did 3,000 years ago." Indeed, the history of Israel is unparalleled both in its length and in its richness. Find out more about the history of Israel both ancient and modern here.

Here are a few quick facts about the history of Israel:

Israel was founded on May 14, 1948 after nearly 2000 years of Jewish dispersal

At present 40% of the world's Jewish population are Israeli residents

Israel is about 290 mils long and 85 miles wide

The Biblical Period: A Condensed History of Israel

History of IsraelBiblical Kingdom

Jewish history begins with the Patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Both Abraham and Isaac had two sons; in both cases, God chose one son over the other—Isaac over Ishmael (Genesis 17), Jacob over Esau (Genesis 27)—to become the leader and eventual father of the Israelites (the Jewish people.) Jacob was the father of the twelve tribes, from whom all Jewish people are descended. The Forefathers, and later their children, lived mainly in the ancient Holy Land, called Canaan. Jacob and his sons descended to Egypt to buy food during a famine in Canaan and stayed there (Genesis 46). The Israelites were enslaved in Egypt for many years, but were eventually lead out triumphantly by their great leader, Moses (Exodus 12).

After forty years of wandering in the desert, the Jews entered the Promised Land, under the leadership of Moses' protégé, Joshua (Joshua 1). Years of wars and conquest followed, until the Israelites had sovereignty over the land. The first king of the Jews was Saul, who was eventually defeated by the Philistines (I Samuel 31 2 Samuel 1). Following Saul was the rule of the great King David; David's son, Solomon, built the First Temple in Jerusalem (I Kings 6). After this golden period, the Israelites were split into two factions—the northern Kingdom of Israel, and the southern Kingdom of Judah (I Kings 11).

In 721 BCE, approximately 200 years after the building of the Temple, the northern kingdoms were exiled by Assyria, becoming the ten "lost tribes." Around 200 years later, in 587 BCE, the Babylonians destroyed the Temple and exiled the remaining Jews (2 Kings 25). Jews were not permitted to return to the Holy Land until the reign of Cyrus of Persia, who not only encouraged them to return, but also allowed the building of the Second Temple (Ezra 1).

During the Hellenistic period, in approximately 150 BCE, the Greek kings endeavored to eradicate the "strange, old-fashioned practices" of Judaism; the Maccabees revolted, leading to autonomy for the Jewish people in Judah. However, that only lasted until the Roman rule. Various attempts by the Jewish people to rebel against the Romans failed. The Second Temple was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE, and the Jews killed or exiled, once again ending Jewish sovereignty in the Holy Land until Israel's statehood was declared in 1948.

A Kingly Time

History of IsraelKings

The reign of the Kings of Israel followed the era of the Judges. In fact, the last judge, the prophet Samuel, anointed the first King of Israel, King Saul. (Although it is disputed if Samuel is counted as one of the judges, he was certainly the last leader of the Jewish people prior to King Saul.) Saul straddled the era of Judges and Kings, because, although he was called melech ("king"), it was not until King David's reign that the nation was truly strong and united.

Saul's reign was tumultuous. He succeeded in many military battles, but later became discontent and jealous of the rising star David. (Some commentaries believe Saul was mentally ill, eventually succumbing to paranoia and depression.) During a war against the Philistines, the Jews were defeated and Saul committed suicide to avoid capture. After mourning the death of Saul, David was anointed king, and his reign was a golden age for the Israelites. King David battled the Philistines and, this time, succeeded in defeating them. At the same time that he was conquering the enemies, he also made strategic alliances with friendly nations. His sovereignty was absolute. David united the 12 tribes and made Jerusalem his capital.

David's son Solomon built on his father's accomplishments. Solomon continued making diplomatic alliances and developed ancient Israel as a regional economic power, building up its infrastructure and industry. It was a time of peace for the Israelites, the climax of which was the building of the Holy Temple in Jerusalem.

Prosperity and peace did not last, however. Not everyone was happy with Solomon's ambitions, and many felt that he gave preferential treatment to his own tribe. Rumblings of a schism began, and the kingdom split in two after Solomon's death, with Israel in the north and Judah in the south. Solomon's son, Rehoboam, ruled the southern kingdom of Judah, and the Kings of Judah continued the Davidic dynasty for the next 300 years.

The next few centuries saw two kings ruling simultaneously, one in the north and one in the south. Israel's first king was Jeroboam, in 928 BCE; its last king was Hosea, in 722 BCE. The Assyrians began their conquest of Israel in 722, leading to an exile of the northern kingdom's Israelites a few years later. The Israelites became known as the "lost tribes." In the south, the autonomy lasted a little longer; the final king of Judah was Zedekiah, whose reign ended in 587 BCE, with the destruction of the Temple and the fall of Jerusalem.

The destruction of the First Temple and the Jewish people's subsequent exile brought an end to the era of the kings—the last time the entire Jewish people would be united under one ruler in one land.

The Davidic Kingdom

The Davidic Dynasty began approximately 1,000 years before the Common Era, with the anointing of its founder, King David. David's rule followed the era of King Saul, the first king of Israel. After Saul was killed in battle against the Philistines, during which the Israelites suffered a terrible defeat, David was anointed. His reign was a golden age for the ancient Israelites, with the territory under his rule extending to the Euphrates river in north to the Gulf of Aqaba in the south. Read more »

History of IsraelDavidic Kingdom

The Davidic Dynasty began approximately 1,000 years before the Common Era, with the anointing of its founder, King David. David’s rule followed the era of King Saul, the first king of Israel. After Saul was killed in battle against the Philistines, during which the Israelites suffered a terrible defeat, David was anointed. His reign was a golden age for the ancient Israelites, with the territory under his rule extending to the Euphrates river in north to the Gulf of Aqaba in the south.

David battled the Philistines, this time succeeding in defeating them. He conquered many nations, including parts of modern-day Syria (Aram) and Jordan (Moab), as well as other territories, like Edom. At the same time that he was conquering his enemies, he was also making strategic alliances with friendly nations, such as the Phoenecians and the Kingdom of Tyre in what is today Lebanon. David's sovereignty was absolute, uniting the twelve tribes and with Jerusalem as its capital.

David built a house for himself, with materials supplied by Hiram, King of Tyre (2 Samuel 5:11). While building himself a house and a capital city (2 Samuel 5:9), David realized it was an embarrassment to God that he, David, should reside in splendor, while God Himself had no home in which to “live” (2 Samuel 7:2). David brought the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem, with the goal of building a Temple for God. However, the prophet Nathan told him that God had forbidden it, since David was a warrior, and the Temple had to be a house of peace. The temple would have to wait to be built by future generations. God promised David that though he would not be able to build the temple, the kingship would forever remain in the Davidic line. (2 Samuel 7:16)

The Era of King Solomon

History of IsraelEra of King Solomon

King Solomon was the second ruler in the Davidic dynasty, taking over as king after the death of his father, King David. Solomon built on his father's accomplishments, and the "golden age" of the Israelites peaked during his forty-year reign. Solomon continued making alliances, and developed ancient Israel into a regional economic power, building up infrastructure and industry. With borders expanding from Egypt to Syria to Mesopotamia, it was a time of peace for the Jewish people, the climax of which was the building of the Temple in Jerusalem, ushering in an era of unparalleled prosperity and religious devotion.

Solomon's wisdom was known throughout the world. In a passage in I Kings 10, the Queen of Sheba is described as coming to visit Solomon to test his knowledge firsthand. She visits Solomon bearing exotic gifts and asks him some riddles; when he satisfactorily answers them, she leaves. This intriguing, enigmatic passage has been cause for speculation throughout the centuries as to the identity of the Queen of Sheba and the precise nature of her relationship with King Solomon.

In I Kings 11, Solomon is described as turning away from God. He is punished for taking too many wives, as they led him astray and into idol worship. God tells Solomon that the punishment for his sins would be the division of his kingdom. However, because of the love God had for David, Solomon's father, He promised not tear the kingdom apart during Solomon's own reign, but rather during the reign of his son, Rehoboam. God also pledged to Solomon that his descendants would continue to have sovereignty over two tribes (Judah and Benjamin).

God's words soon came to pass, and the time of prosperity and peace came to an end not long after Solomon's death. Many people were unhappy with Solomon’s ambitious aims, and felt that he gave preferential treatment to his own tribe. The rumblings of a schism began, and after his death, the kingdom split into two, with Israel in the north, and Judah in the south. Solomon's son, Rehoboam, ruled the southern kingdom, Judah, and the kings of Judah remained in the Davidic dynasty for the next 300 years.

The Divided Kingdoms

King Saul, King David, and King Solomon were the first three kings of Israel. King Saul was anointed by the prophet Samuel (I Samuel 10). After his death, King David became king (2 Samuel 2), beginning the "Davidic dynasty," which lasted for three centuries. King Solomon was the last to rule over a united kingdom. God warned him that because of his sins, the kingdom would be torn in two after his death (I Kings 11.) Read more »

History of IsraelDivided Kingdom

Indeed, after Solomon's death, his son Rehoboam ruled over the southern kingdom, consisting of two tribes, Judah and Benjamin. His kingdom was called "Judah." The kingdom in the north, with the other ten tribes, was called "Israel."

The next few centuries saw two kings ruling simultaneously, one in the north and one in the south. In the north, Israel's first king was Jeroboam, in 928 BCE; the last king was Hosea, in 722 BCE. The Assyrians began their conquest of Israel in 722, leading to an exile of the Israelites of the northern kingdom a few years later. These Israelites became known as the "lost tribes," never returning to Israel en masse.

In the south, the autonomy lasted a little longer; the final king of Judah was Zedekiah, whose reign ended in 587, with the destruction of the Temple and the fall of Jerusalem. The destruction of the first Temple and the subsequent Babylonian exile of the Jewish people brought an end to the era of the kings—the last time the entire Jewish people would be united under one ruler, in one land.

The Judges: Leaders of the People

Although Moses was the Israelite's first true "shofet"—judge—the historical period of "Judges" begins after the death of Joshua, the student of Moses and the leader who brought the Israelites into Canaan. Read more »

History of IsraelJudges

Joshua was a loyal servant of Moses, as well as a powerful leader and mighty warrior. After Moses' death, Joshua brought the Israelites into the land of Canaan. Even before entering the land, Joshua exhibited his military prowess when leading the charge against the Amalekites in Rephidim, who descended on the Israelites shortly after the Exodus from Egypt. At the Jordan River, upon entering the land, the waters parted for Joshua, similar to the miracle that occurred for Moses at the Red Sea (Joshua 3-4). Joshua conquered the city of Jericho in the famous battle, then went on to defeat the nation of Ai. An alliance of Amorite kings challenged Joshua, and as that battle continued into the evening hours, Joshua prayed to God for the sun and the moon to stand still (Joshua 10) so he could complete the battle in daylight hours. The Israelites emerged victorious.

Following Joshua's death, the Israelites found themselves essentially without a leader, lacking a strong person to unite them all. Years of battle and bloodshed awaited them, as they were tasked with destroying the hostile nations living in the land, in order to truly inherit it. This decentralization of leadership threatened to undermine their efforts, and it was at this point that the "judges" arose to lead the people. The judges ruled sequentially, and their duties went beyond the legal duty of the modern judge. They were in charge of the moral and military lives of their people as well, exhorting them to follow in the ways of God, while also leading them into battle.

Although accounts differ as to whom is actually considered a "judge," based on the Books of Judges and Samuel, there is a general agreement that there were twelve judges, beginning with Othniel and ending with Samson. (Some scholars count the High Priest Eli and the Prophet Samuel as judges as well.) Of the twelve, only five are given extended narratives in the text: Ehud, Deborah, Gideon, Jephtah, and Samson. During this period, the Israelites were successful in conquering the Land, as recounted by the thrilling stories recounted in the text. At the end of the period of the Judges, internal strife threatened to implode the Israelites from within.

In Judges 17:6, God laments the lack of leadership and lack of obedience to Divine Law. This period of divisiveness and freewheeling was ended when the Jewish people were united under their first king, King Saul. Saul was anointed (by Divine guidance, and at the request of the people) by Samuel, whose own sons were ineligible to rule due to their dishonesty.

Following the reign of Saul, with the anointing of King David, the Davidic dynasty began, ushering in the next chapter in Israelite history.

The Hasmonean Dynasty

The Hasmonean Dynasty begins with the famous story of Hanukkah. Following Alexander the Great's conquest of much of the ancient world, the Holy Land was placed under control of the Seleucid Greek rulers, a Hellenstic empire. The Seleucids restricted Torah study and desecrated the Holy Temple, in an attempt to eradicate "backward" Jewish religion and culture; the Greeks wanted the Jews to dress, eat, and think like they did, and rooted out Jews still practicing their beliefs. Read more »

History of IsraelHasmonean Dynasty

However, the Jewish people rebelled in 166 BCE. Led by the heroic Judah the Maccabee, of the Hasmonean family, the Jews were successful in militarily repelling Greek rule. They entered the Temple and purified it, and found the miraculous jug of oil, which, legend tells, though it had only enough oil to light the Menorah (candelabra) for one night, lasted for eight nights.

After this triumphant return to Jerusalem, the period of Hasmonean rule began. More Hasmonean victories, combined with a weakening of Seleucid authority, led the Seleucids to return autonomy of Israel to the Jewish people. The Hasmoneans ruled in the Holy Land for close to a century. The Hasmonean leaders believed they were continuing the reign of the Shoftim (Judges) and Kings of early Israel, and they consolidated legal, religious, political and military power. They also expanded the physical boundaries of the land, returning to almost Solomonic-era borders. Jewish life flourished under the Hasmonean leaders.

Eventually, though, the Hasmonean era came to an end, brought to submission under the Roman emperor Herod the Great in 37 BCE. The legacy of the powerful Hasmonean dynasty was so great, however, that Herod married a Hasmonean princess in order to strengthen his legitimacy as a ruler and shore up support for his reign.

The First Exile

Only a few generations after the period of glory and prosperity under King Solomon, the Israelites suffered defeat at the hands of the Assyrians, and then 200 years later, the Babylonians, two hostile countries neighboring to the north in what are today Syria and Iraq, respectively. Read more »

History of IsraelFirst Exile

The Temple (Beit HaMikdash, in Hebrew) was destroyed, its holy objects looted, and the Jews exiled. This was the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora, an era which saw Jewish communities and Torah learning flourish outside the Holy Land. However, no matter how successful the Jews became in their foreign communities (largely in Babylonia), their connection to the Land of Israel never disappeared. One of the most famous psalms, Psalm 137, eloquently describes the Jewish people crying on the river of Babylon, swearing that they will never forget the holy city of Jerusalem, as crucial to one's identity as one’s own right hand.

The exile was a traumatic event in Jewish history. In one fell swoop, the Jewish people lost their independence, their Temple, and their homeland. With the northern kingdom having been exiled approximately 200 years before, the exile of the kingdom of Judah was the final blow—an end to the complete Jewish presence in Israel.

Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonian ruler, had allowed only the poorest people to remain in Jerusalem. The period of the Babylonian captivity in the Holy Land prior to the Temple's destruction had fundamental effects in Jewish religion and culture. The current Hebrew alphabet was adopted by those who remained in Israel, replacing the traditional Israelite alphabet. It was the last period of intense Divine prophecy, mainly through the prophet Ezekiel. And it was at this time that the Torah began to be canonized by leading scholars of the Great Assembly who remained in Jerusalem. The division of "tribes" was lost, with the exception of the tribe of Levi, which continued to have its unique role as workers of the Temple.

This was also the first time since the reign of King Saul that the Jewish people found themselves without a leader. Sages and scholars began to emerge as leaders, most notably Ezra and Nehemia, exiled sages who led the eventual return of the Jewish people to their homeland from Babylonia.

Gedaliah, the Jewish leader appointed by Nebuchadnezzar as governor over the remaining indigent Jews in Jerusalem, began to revitalize the city and with it, the hopes of the people. However, Gedaliah was assassinated by a fellow Jew who resented his proximity to Babylonian rulership, and the remaining Jewish families, fearing retaliation from the Babylonians, fled to Egypt.

It was not until the rule of King Cyrus of Persia, in 538 BCE, that the Jews were finally allowed back into their Holy Land.

The Bar Kokhba Rebellion

Simon Bar Kokhba is synonymous with tragedy. His surname "Bar Kokhba" means "son of a star," and refers to the passage in Numbers 24 which speaks of a "star shooting out of Jacob." Rabbi Akiva, a contemporary of Bar Kokhba, gave him this name, which has Messianic undertones. Read more »

History of IsraelBar Kokhba

Simon Bar Kokhba is synonymous with tragedy. His surname "Bar Kokhba" means "son of a star," and refers to the passage in Numbers 24 which speaks of a "star shooting out of Jacob." Rabbi Akiva, a contemporary of Bar Kokhba, gave him this name, which has Messianic undertones. Indeed, following the destruction of the Temple, the stripping of Jewish autonomy, and the exile of Jews from Jerusalem, the hope that Bar Kokhba raised with his brief success and leadership led many to believe that the Messianic age had begun.

Christians, who believed that Jesus was the Messiah, rejected Bar Kokhba. This led to further schisms between Jews and early Christians, helping mold the Christian identity as one separate from Judaism.

After the devastation and destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, and the crushing of the earlier Jewish revolts, Jewish life in Israel was decimated, and Jewish sovereignty over. The Emperor Hadrian visited Jerusalem, and pledged to rebuild the city and the Temple. However, his motivation was to make a new Roman city and a temple dedicated to pagan gods. When the Romans began to plough up the foundations of the Temple, tensions grew, and when he outlawed religious practices that were fundamental to the Jewish faith, such as circumcision (which the Hellenists viewed as mutilation), the Jews rebelled, the third such rebellion (or: Jewish-Roman Wars) since the destruction of the Temple. And the last.

The revolution, inspired in part by the Hasmonean Dynasty, was initially successful. Practicing guerilla warfare, the Jewish forces recaptured many towns and villages, including Jerusalem. The Romans were taken by surprise, and attempts to suppress the rebellion failed. Coins were minted with the phrase "The Freedom of Israel." Animal sacrifices were resumed, though not at the Temple; Rabbi Akiva led the Sanhedrin (Jewish Supreme Court), and Bar Kokhba established himself as Nasi (prince.)

However, in the year 135, the Romans were finally able to succeed in breaking the rebellion, and they did so brutally. They laid siege to the cities until the Jewish forces were weakened by lack of food, and then began the attack in earnest. The Jews fled to their stronghold, in Betar, but were attacked there as well, the final blow occurring on Tisha b'Av, the national day of Jewish mourning. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed, and Hadrian attempted to wipe out any indication that a Jewish presence ever existed in the land. Scholars, including Rabbi Akiva, were persecuted and killed; texts were burned. Hadrian erected statues in the Temple, and replaced the name "Judea" on maps with the name "Syria Palaestina," from which the modern name "Palestine" is derived. He also reinstituted the name "Aelia Capitolina" as the capital of the new Roman city. Jews were banned from even entering the holy city.

Later, Constantine I allowed the Jews to enter Jerusalem once a year, on Tisha B’Av, in order to mourn. The revolt had significant impact on Judaism. Jewish "Messianism" became a study in the abstract only and the center of Jewish learning moved to the Diaspora. However, a Jewish presence remained in the Holy Land. The Jews mostly migrated to the north to Safed and Tiberias. Safed became known as an important Torah center, especially for the study of Kabbalah. Important Jewish texts were completed in Israel, including the Mishnah and the Jerusalem Talmud. In modern Israeli history, the Bar Kokhba revolt became a symbol of national resistance. The Jewish youth group "Betar" took its name from Bar Kokhba's final stronghold, and Israel's first prime minister, David Ben-Gurion, adopted the name of one of Bar Kokhba's generals.

The Ottoman Empire

The rule of the Ottoman Empire in the Holy Land, which began in the early 16th century following their defeat of the Mamluks, lasted until 1922 (the end of World World I) after which Great Britain gained control of Palestine. Read more »

History of IsraelOttoman Empire

During the 8th and 9th centuries, Turkish tribes were pushed out of their lands in Central Asia by the invading Mongols. They converted to Islam and began traveling westward. The Seljuk tribe rose to power, but often conflicted with the other, nomadic Turkish tribes. The Seljuks sent one of these tribes to Anatolia, in the Byzantine Empire, and from this tribe arose the Ottoman Empire.

The Ottoman Turks were originally centered in modern-day Turkey, but soon began to spread out into Europe and the Middle East, conquering lands. They were tremendous fighters and the already weakened Byzantine Empire was on the verge of collapse. Finally, in 1453, they destroyed Constantinople, and with it, the last vestiges of the Byzantine Empire. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul.

The Ottoman Empire faced internal problems, since their reign lacked organization and there were frequent disputes regarding succession. However, they were able to amass great wealth by controlling the main trade routes and charging for access. They were overall a tolerant people, allowing religious groups to keep their laws and traditions without interfering. The Ottomans are known for their splendid architecture. They also prized intellect, and many works on topics such as math and astronomy were published during this time.

During Ottoman rule, the religious minorities in Israel—Jews and Christians—lived through both periods of prosperity, and of persecution.

The Jewish population thrived during the first part of Ottoman rule. Jews were allowed to practice their religion, and the city of Safed (Tsfat), in the Galilee, saw a rebirth of Jewish life. The Holy Land became a refuge for Jews fleeing persecution in Crusader Europe, and for the most part, the sultans tolerated, often openly embracing, the Jews.

In the mid-16th century, Kabbalah was studied intently, and the Oral Law was codified in the Shulkhan Arukh. From the institutions of learning in Safed, these texts were dispersed to Jews living in the Diaspora. However, with the decline and decentralization of Ottoman rule, the lives of the Jews declined as well. Much of the land was in the hands of absentee landlords, and fell into disrepair. Taxes were crippling to the average farmer and landowner, and arable land became victim to swamps and desert.

The decline continued until Western interest in Israel began in the 19th century, and then Jewish life began to flourish again. The last two decades of Ottoman rule witnessed the first waves of Jewish immigrants to Israel, emigrating mainly from Russia, who came to build a better life for themselves and fulfill their dreams of living in the Holy Land.

The Hurva is an ancient synagogue in the old City of Jerusalem, in what is now called the Jewish Quarter. The history of the Hurva is inextricably linked to the rule of the Ottoman Empire. The Hurva (literally: The Ruins) gained prominence during Ottoman rule, as a group of Jews arrived from Poland in 1700 and attempted to rebuild the synagogue. However, they ran into many problems with taxes and fees owed to the Ottoman pashas; eventually, unable to repay their debt, the building was set on fire and the Jewish community exiled.

After nearly two centuries of attempts by Jewish groups to rebuild the synagogue, permission was finally granted, money raised, and, in 1864 the synagogue was rebuilt and dedicated. Sadly, it was destroyed again during the 1948 war, but is in the process of being, once again, reconstructed, this time by the Israeli government.

One particular group of Christians, the Armenians, grew in numbers, power, and prosperity during Ottoman rule, and gained control over their own quarter in Jerusalem. In the late 17th century, Armenians were the second largest Christian community in the city, comprising over 20% of the Christian population in Jerusalem. However, over the next two hundred years, there were many incidents of massacres instigated by the Ottoman rulers against the Armenians, all over the Ottoman Empire. Toward the end of World War I, the Ottoman war minister, out of fear the Armenians would side with the Russians, began a systematic destruction of Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire. Their homes and property were confiscated; many Armenians were forced on a death march to a town in Syria. In total, between one and one-and-a-half million Armenians worldwide were systematically murdered during and just after World War I.

Subjects under the Ottoman Empire in Israel enjoyed years of freedom and prosperity, but unfortunately also suffered greatly. The end of the Ottoman Empire saw the true beginning of aliyah—Jews returning home to settle their land, the land of Israel.

The Roman Empire

History of IsraelRoman Empire

The Roman Empire was an outgrowth of the ancient Roman Republic, which had roots back as far as 500 BCE. In the first century BCE, Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed the First Triumvirate in an attempt to gain control of the Republic. Caesar emerged as the victor, but was later assassinated. However, his chosen heir, Octavian, formed part of the Second Triumvirate, and in 31 BCE, became the undisputed ruler. Roman emperors continued to expand and conquer more territory, until the Romans ruled much of the known world. During the Pax Romana (Roman Peace), in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, a period of relative peace, the Roman economy thrived and trade routes were established. The Romans built huge, architecturally impressive structures, like the Coliseum, and made incredible advances in infrastructure, building aqueducts, sewer systems, and the first highway system.

The Romans, in the 1st century BCE, conquered much of the known world, ending the reign of the Greeks, as well as the reign of the Hasmonean dynasty in Israel. Their reign lasted until 476, when the Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, gained control.

At first, the Romans granted the Jewish people some authority over their internal affairs; however, frequent rebellions by the Jews led the Romans to stamp out that autonomy. Around 40 BCE, the Roman Senate proclaimed Herod the Great as "King of the Jews," and he was appointed the governor of Judea. He married a Hasmonean princess in order to gain the favor of the Jews in the region and shore up support for his reign. Herod also embarked on a program to reconstruct the Temple, which suffered damage from invasions over the years. He returned the Temple to its former glory, as well as enclosing the Tomb of the Patriarchs and building the fortress atMasada, but never received full Jewish support.

After Herod's death in 4 BCE, the Romans took full control of Jerusalem. The Jewish revolts began in earnest, culminating in the rebellion in 66 CE, which led the eventual destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. The Jewish people had been able to fend off Roman advances for a few years, but were never a true match for the stronger and better-equipped Roman army, under the Emperor Titus.

After the destruction of the Temple and Jerusalem, the Jewish people were devastated. Hundreds of thousands were killed by the Romans, exiled, or sold into slavery. The image of the Romans triumphantly carrying off the sacred vessels from the Temple is immortalized on the famous Arch of Titus. Hope stirred again briefly during the reign of Bar Kokhba, a messianic figure and powerful military leader, who managed to reclaim Jerusalem in 132 CE. His victory, though, was short-lived; in 135 CE, his rebellion was crushed, the remaining Jews exiled, and Jerusalem was renamed Aelia Capitolina.

However, this did not end Jewish presence in Israel. The north, specifically Tiberias, became a center of Jewish learning and Torah study.

The Second Temple

The great and powerful Babylonian empire came to an abrupt end in the 6th century BCE. Infamous in Jewish history for destroying the First Temple and exiling the Jews from their homeland, the Babylonian's reign was usurped by Cyrus the Great of Persia. Read more »

History of IsraelSecond Temple

In 539 BCE, Cyrus called for the Jews to return from their exile back to their homeland, and even encouraged them to rebuild the Temple. Historians generally agree that Cyrus' motives were not altruistic; rather, he desired the income from a rebuilt Jerusalem and new Temple. However, the Jews heeded his call and excitedly returned in droves, under the leadership of Zerubabel and the prophets Ezra and Nehemia.

Zerubabel, a descendant of one of the last kings of Judah, was appointed governor over the Jews in Israel. The Persians forbade the reinstitution of the monarchy; however, the rulers did allow the Jews significant autonomy. The description of the return of the Jews and the subsequent rebuilding of the Temple is described in detail in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Haggai. Construction of the Temple began in 535 BCE and continued for about twenty years. After Cyrus' death, the Jews were forced to take a hiatus from building by an order from his successor, but the next emperor, Darius, allowed the construction to continue.

The Temple was dedicated in the year 515 BCE, and lasted until 70 CE, though it was missing crucial components that had been looted by the Babylonians. The Persian emperors returned many of the beautiful golden vessels, but significant items like the Ark of the Covenant and the Ten Commandments were never returned. After its dedication, Temple worship continued like it had during the Solomonic era, with the reinstitution of animal sacrifices, and pilgrimages during the festivals.

Religious fervor peaked during the Second Temple period. Ezra, responding to the fear that the Jewish identity would be lost, forbade intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews. He also established the Great Assembly, whose members instituted the Shemonah Esrei (the focal point of the daily prayers), established the holiday of Purim, and canonized the 24 Books of the Jewish Bible. Messianism, which had began to take hold after the destruction of the First Temple, gathered strength. An apocryphal work written during this time (the Book of Enoch) writes of a man, a descendant of David, who would bring peace at the "end of days." The Jewish messianic zeal of the time reached a crescendo during the Jewish revolts against the Romans at the end of the Second Temple Period, specifically in the person of Bar Kokhba, who was assumed by Rabbi Akiva to be the Messiah. When he was killed and the final rebellion crushed, in 135 CE (after the destruction of the Temple), it brought a temporary end to the messianic enthusiasm of the Jewish people.

The Persian Empire fell into the hands of Alexander the Great in approximately 330 BCE. The Greeks attempted to eradicate Jewish religion and culture, in their desire for the Jewish people to conform to the Greek values and way of life. They forbade Torah study and did not allow the Jews to practice halakhah (Jewish law.) The Greeks entered the Holy Temple and desecrated it, but the Jews, led by the Maccabees, revolted and regained control of their Temple and their autonomy. The Greek empire eventually crumbled during the Roman conquest.

In 37 BCE, Herod the Great, the Roman ruler, refurbished the Temple to make it even more splendid. Although some refer to this reconstructed building as "Herod's Temple," in Jewish tradition, it is considered the same Temple, because worship continued unabated during the rebuilding. The Romans were not as liberal with the Jewish people's autonomy, and sought to suppress it. This led to a series of revolts by the Jewish people, ending with the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. Though the revolts continued after the destruction, by the year 135 CE, following the Bar Kokhba debacle, Jerusalem was razed, the Jews exiled, and the Holy Land renamed Aelia Capitolina.

However, this did not end Jewish presence in Israel. The north, specifically Tiberias, became a center of Jewish learning and Torah study until, over time, exiles returned, synagogues were built, and eventually, Jewish life flourished once again in the Holy Land.

The Byzantine Empire

History of IsraelByzantine Empire

In the year 313 BCE, the emperor Constantine I adopted Christianity as the official religion of the Roman empire, and moved the capital to Byzantium, which became known as Constantinople, effectively ushering in the new, Byzantine age of the Roman Empire. Byzantine reign of the Holy Land lasted until the middle of the 7th century, although the empire itself lasted much longer, until declining in the 11th century and ultimately falling to the Ottomans in the 15th.

The Holy Land became a predominately Christian country. At the behest of Emperor Constantine, many churches, such as the Church of Annunciation, were erected over Christian holy sites. Monasteries sprung up all over the country.

At the beginning of the Byzantine reign, Jews were allowed to practice their religion. Circumcisions were permitted, the Jewish Sabbath and festivals were recognized, synagogues could not be violated, and Jewish courts had jurisdiction in legal cases. In the year 351, though, the Jews, persecuted under the Roman emperor, rebelled. The rebellion was quickly and decisively quashed, destroying the towns of Sepphoris, Tiberias, and others. The Jews, while for the most part tolerated in other parts of the empire to varying degrees, lost their autonomy in the Holy Land, and were forbidden from entering Jerusalem, except once a year, on Tisha B'Av, to mourn the destruction of their Temple.

In the beginning of the 5th century, the situation of relative tolerance throughout the empire began to change, as well. Jews were not allowed to hold civil or military offices—except for that of a tax collector. Jews could not own slaves, and while they were allowed to adhere to their religion, they could not enhance it. Construction of new synagogues was forbidden, although archaeological evidence throughout Israel tells us that this ban was regularly circumvented.

In the 6th century, the emperor Justinian tightened control over the Jews, further decreasing their status. The Samaritans, adherents of the religion of the ancient Israelites, pre-Babylonian exile, also lived in the Holy Land at this time, but they, too, were persecuted, and after an attempted revolution, were virtually wiped out.

Following the reign of Justinian, the restrictions on Jews eased and they were once again tolerated by the ruling class. In the 7th century, the Muslims began their conquest of the Holy Land, setting the stage for the Crusades, beginning in 1095. During the Crusades, Jews were persecuted, often forced to choose between conversion and death; many chose suicide. Later emperors in the crumbling Byzantine empire officially sanctioned persecution of Jews and confiscation of their belongings.

Even during this difficult period, Jewish learning and writing proliferated. During the earliest years of the Byzantine rule, for example, the Jewish calendar was organized by Hillel—the same Jewish calendar used today by Jews worldwide—and the Jerusalem Talmud was completed.

Crusades

Tensions in the Byzantine Empire had been building since the 7th century, when the Seljuk Turk armies took control of Palestine, beginning the weakening and crumbling of the empire. Read more »

History of IsraelCrusades

Tensions in the Byzantine Empire had been building since the 7th century, when the Seljuk Turk armies took control of Palestine, beginning the weakening and crumbling of the empire.

In 1009, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher was destroyed; even though later Muslim rulers allowed it to be rebuilt, the damage was done, physically and politically, and Christians throughout the empire became concerned about the Muslim presence in the Holy Land. Elsewhere in Europe, religious piety among the Christians was growing stronger, and Christians were falling under attacks by Turkish Muslims. This potent combination led to the declaration of the First Crusade, in 1095, a call to support the Byzantines against the Seljuk expansion.

The stated goal of the Crusades was more religious than political, however—to reclaim the Holy Land from the Muslim "infidels." Any soldier who participated in recapturing Jerusalem would receive immediate remission of his sins, an enticing incentive for the fervently religious Christians.

At first, the Crusades seemingly had nothing to do with the Jewish population. However, marauding bands of Crusaders decided to first get rid of other "infidels" living among them—the Jews of Europe. Subsequently, entire populations of Jews were brutally murdered as the Crusaders made their way to the Holy Land. Sometimes, the local bishop would attempt to help the Jews of his city, but was usually not successful. The attacks on the Jews during the Crusades decimated the Jewish population in Europe. Many kinnot (lamentations) were written to express the despair over the horrifying loss of life, and Jews today recite these kinnot on Tisha B'Av, the Jewish national day of mourning.

When the Crusaders arrived in Jerusalem during the First Crusade, the Jews and Muslims living there worked together to repel the attack. Eventually, the Crusaders were victorious. The Jewish synagogues were burned, and the Jews, along with their holy books, were killed or held for ransom. The Karaite community in Ashkelon worked to ransom both the Jews and the texts; by 1100, though, the remaining Jews were forcibly converted or murdered. Over the period of the Crusades, the Jewish populations in Jerusalem, Jaffa, and Ramleh were wiped out. The Galilee remained relatively untouched, and continued to be a refuge for the Jewish people.

The Crusades lasted hundreds of years, with the holy cities and sites in Jerusalem constantly changing hands between Crusader and Muslim victors. The Knights Templar were the final Christian stronghold in the Holy Land. In 1291, Christian authority in the land came to a decisive end when the Crusaders were defeated by the Mamluks, a Muslim military class.

Once again, though, the persistence of the Jewish people and their love of the Holy Land, even during troubled times, is impressive. The same years which saw massacres and slaughter also saw the rise of Judah HaLevi, author of the Kuzari, and both Maimonides and Nahmanides, respected and prolific Torah sages. Judah HaLevi risked his life to travel to his beloved Holy Land, though he was killed on arrival; Nahmanides, too, risked everything to live in Israel, and was successful in reestablishing Jewish life and Torah learning throughout the country.

Rebirth

History of IsraelRebirth

Jews are indigenous to the Palestine region and have lived there continuously for over 3,000 years. Even after the Roman conquest in the first century, Jewish communities remained and periodically flourished, and exiled Jews returned in waves of immigration. But Jews became an oppressed minority in their homeland, and their numbers rose and fell depending on the kindness or cruelty of the region’s different rulers. In the 1700s and early 1800s, crippling taxes, discrimination, persecution and natural disasters brought the Jewish community to a new low.

In the mid-1800s, a new energy seized the Jewish community in Palestine. With help from philanthropists like Sir Moses Monteﬁore and donations from ordinary Jews around the world, Jews branched out from the cities and began purchasing land and building farms, villages and schools. More exiles returned. By 1854, Jews were the largest religious group in Jerusalem; by 1870, they were once again the majority of the city’s population.

Between 1882 and 1914, a new kind of Jewish immigrant arrived — the “Lovers of Zion” and other early Zionists — who laid the groundwork for the modern Jewish State.

These immigrants sought freedom from the oppression and persecution that had plagued Jews in Europe and the Middle East.

They were young, energetic idealists imbued with Western political principles and the dreams of national liberation that were sweeping across Europe.

The returning Jews had no powerful nation to help them. They had no weapons. They were often penniless.

The land was only sparsely populated, and much of it had become barren. The Jews wanted to restore the land’s once-famous fertility and build villages and communities where none existed. The region was an impoverished backwater of the Ottoman Empire. In 1880, there were only an estimated 250,000 to 400,000 people, many of whom were also recent arrivals, who had no sense of unity or ethnic or national identity. Their allegiance was to the Ottoman Empire, their religious group, their clan and their local community.

The Jews legally bought the land they developed primarily from absentee landowners. Most of it was uncultivated swampland or sand dunes.

Through backbreaking labor, the early Jewish pioneers cleared the wastelands and malarial swamps, reforested the hillsides and built towns and villages.

“Nobody knows of all the hardships, sickness and wretchedness they [the early Zionists] underwent. No observer from afar can feel what it is like to be without a drop of water for days, to lie for months in cramped tents visited by all sorts of reptiles, or understand what our wives, children, and mothers go through.… No one looking at a completed building realizes the sacriﬁce put into it.” — Early Zionist account of settling, 1885

The Interim Report on the Civil Administration of Palestine to the League of Nations in June 1921 said:

“Jewish agricultural colonies… developed the culture of oranges… They drained swamps. They planted eucalyptus trees. They practiced, with modern methods, all the processes of agriculture… Every traveler in Palestine… is impressed by… the beautiful stretches of prosperous cultivation about them.”

POST-WORLD WAR I

Britain and the League of Nations created the Palestine Mandate as the Jewish National Home in part because of the growing number of Jews and their achievements in the pre-World War I period. Between 1890 and 1915, the Jewish population rose from 42,900 to 83,000.10 They had built thriving farms, created villages and towns and social institutions, introduced innovations like socialist communes, revived Hebrew and created a rich culture.

During the Mandate (1920-1948), Zionists continued their prewar policies of purchasing and restoring the land, often using innovative agricultural techniques.

Zionists also developed industry, power plants, urban life and social institutions, such as labor unions, political parties, hospitals, universities and a national orchestra. Three universities were founded before 1948. The Hebrew Opera ﬁrst performed in 1922. The Palestine Orchestra, later the Israeli Philharmonic, was founded in 1936.

Zionists hoped to live in friendship and cooperation with the Arab population and believed that restoring the land would beneﬁt everyone. Many Arabs welcomed this development, which also attracted Arab immigrants from the neighboring countries. An estimated 25 percent to 37 percent of immigrants to pre-state Israel were Arabs, not Jews. Between 1922 and 1946 alone, approximately 100,000 Arabs entered the country from neighboring lands. Approximately 363,000 Jews immigrated in the same period.

Footnote: The material on this page appeared in “Israel 101,” a publication of Stand With Us

Zionism, Part I

"Zionism" has existed as a concept, if not by name, since Biblical times, when the Jews, suffering during their first exile in the land of Egypt, were brought out by Moses and began their journey home—to the land of Israel. Read more »

History of IsraelModern Zionism

Since then, there have been many periods throughout Jewish history during which Jews were exiled from their land or persecuted within it. Yet the Jews persistently, stubbornly, refused to give up on their homeland, and in every generation groups have attempted to return home and revive Jewish culture and life in Israel. Examples abound: Ezra and Nehemia, who brought the Jews back from Babylonian exile an eventually rebuilt the Second Temple; Nahmanides and Judah HaLevi, among others, two great scholars from the Middle Ages who gave up their home in the Diaspora to move to Israel. This is only a small part of the list, of the people and families whose life goal was to resettle their homeland.

The Age of Enlightenment ("Haskalah" in Hebrew), during the 18th and 19th centuries, revolutionized the way other nations viewed Jews, and the way Jews viewed themselves. Jews began to be granted equal citizenship rights in countries across Europe, starting with France, and many assimilated into their new culture and country, popularizing secular Judaism. At the same time, anti-Semitism was on the rise, but this time it was racially, rather than religiously, motivated. For many, the rise in anti-Semitism, particularly in Russia, combined with the Enlightenment-era notion of "nationalism" stirred Zionist aspirations.

Influential Jewish voices recognized the importance of the Jewish people taking steps to reestablish Israel as the homeland of the Jews. The Vilna Gaon, a Lithuanian Torah sage, exhorted his followers to make aliyah and resettle the land of Israel. Though he himself never made it to Israel, following his death, a group 500 of his followers undertook the arduous journey to Israel between the years 1800 - 1812. They eventually settled in Jerusalem, spreading the teachings of the Vilna Gaon and establishing a vibrant Ashkenazic presence in Israel.

Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kalischer, a German rabbi who lived at the beginning of the 19th century, was one of the earliest modern Zionists, and he, too, took practical steps to rebuild the land of Israel. His goal was to establish Israel as a homeland for the persecuted Jews of Eastern Europe, as well as to improve the lives of the Jews already living in Israel. He believed that, like in Biblical times, success in the land depended on agricultural achievements. With donations from Diaspora Jews, Kalischer planned to cultivate the land, open an agricultural school, and form a military group in order to guard the fragile new settlements. His book, Derishat Zion, sums up his philosophy: The Jews can only be saved if they help themselves, and they must do so by settling the land of Palestine.

This movement was called Hovevei Zion—literally—Lovers of Zion. It was a forerunner of the modern Zionist movement. Their goal was to promote immigration to Israel, and advance existing Jewish settlements, specifically focusing on agricultural developments.

Sympathy for the Zionist cause from powerful political figures such as Sir Moses Haim Montefiore, a high ranking British Jew, and Baron Edmond Benjamin James de Rothschild, a French Jew of great standing, spurred Kalischer into action. He seized advantage of this newfound influence and launched a settlement movement. Kalischer traveled around Germany, establishing societies to come to Israel and cultivate the land. Kalischers' son, Wolf Kalischer, founded the Mikve Israel agricultural school, located near Tel Aviv, supported financially by Baron Rothschild. Kalischer's zeal and unceasing devotion to his cause, combined with his influence on the powerful men of the day, made him one of the cornerstones of the modern state of Israel.

Though the majority of the influential early Zionists were of Ashkenazic descent, the Sephardi Jews had a vocal presence as well. Judah ben Solomon Hai Alkalai, born in Sarajevo, wrote a book whose theme of redemption through settling the land of Israel had major impact on Kalischer's writings.

Moshe Hess, a French philosopher and secular Jew active in the early 1860s, saw the rise of nationalism in Italy and Germany, and predicted that the Germans would ultimately be intolerant of the nationalistic aspirations of others. His book, "Rome and Jerusalem: The Last National Question," though mostly unnoticed in his time, declared that establishing a homeland for the Jews in Palestine was the only long-lasting solution to anti-Semitism. Hess was honored retroactively for his role in establishing the state of Israel.

Pogroms in Russia from 1881 1884 destroyed thousands of Jewish homes in 166 towns across the southern empire. While fatalities were few, many families were reduced to poverty. The tsar blamed the Jews for the pogroms, and enacted harsh restrictions on them. In the years 1903 1906, a much more brutal pogrom broke out, killing an estimated 2,000 Jews. Other riots broke out in Odessa from 1859 1905 leaving hundreds dead. These attacks forced the Jews to change their perception of their status in Russia; immigration to the United States and Zionist ideology both experienced an increase following these pogroms. Though most of the Jews fleeing Russia went to the US, some groups decided to make aliyah.

One of these groups was called "Bilu." The name is an acronym of a verse in Isaiah 2, which exhorts the "House of Jacob" to "go up." The goal of Bilu was to reestablish a Jewish community in Israel, thereby "redeeming" it. The first group of Biluim was founded by a group of university students who traveled in Palestine in 1882. They quickly joined the Hovevei Zion group and established the agricultural cooperative of Rishon LeZion. Although it initially failed, due to lack of fresh water, Baron Rothschild stepped in and funded a winery in Rishon, which eventually became a profitable business. Baron Rothschild also helped the Biluim establish the city of Zichron Yaacov.

Leon Pinsker, a Polish physician and Zionist who lived in the mid 1800s, was at first convinced by the Enlightenment movement that the solution to anti-Semitism was assimilation. However, the wave of Russian pogroms in the 1870s and 1880s changed his thinking, and he became a proponent of a Jewish state, stating that the perpetually homeless Jews, persecuted for centuries, could only find peace in the Land of Israel. His book, "Auto Emancipation," unlike Hess', made a splash and provoked strong responses. Pinsker, too, became one of the founders of the Hovevei Zion movement funded by Baron Rothschild. In order to be formally recognized by the Russian government, the movement became a charity, "The Society for the Support of Jewish Farmers and Artisans in Syria and Eretz Israel," later known as the Odessa Committee. The committee was dedicated to cultivating the agriculture of Israel, and helped to establish the community of Rehovot and Rishon LeZion, among others.

These early Zionists, known as "Proto Zionists," paved the way for the massive waves of immigration to Israel—called "aliyah," from the Hebrew word "to ascend"—beginning at the end of the 19th century.

The British Mandate

History of IsraelBritish Mandate

After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of the First World War, Israel—then called Palestine—became a mandate of the British Empire. The Ottomans were initially defeated at the onset of World War I, and Palestine was brought under British military control for the duration of the war. The British bettered the quality of life for the Jews and Arabs in Palestine, improving the water and food supply, fighting diseases, and enhancing communications. In 1922, following World War I, the League of Nations formally gave temporary control of Palestine to the British government; the stated objective of the League of Nations Mandate system was to administer parts of the defunct Ottoman Empire, which had been in control of the Middle East since the 16th century, until the local residents became capable of self-rule. Great Britain was tasked with creating a national homeland for the Jewish people.

Britain's job was to implement the Balfour Declaration, which had been signed five years earlier, stating Britain's desire to create a homeland in Palestine for the Jews. The British government had, however, made conflicting promises to both the Jews and the Arabs, promising each their own autonomous area.

The drafting of the mandate and the demarcation of Israel's borders was a delicate balancing act, fraught with conflict. The Palestine Committee, for example, objected to the phrase invoking the Jewish people's historical "claim" on the Holy Land; the phrase was consequently reworded. The mandate was finally ratified in June of 1922.

During the years of the mandate, which lasted from 1922 until the declaration of an independent State of Israel in 1948, the Jewish population grew. Over 300,000 Jews immigrated to Israel at this time, and it's estimated that another 50,000 immigrated illegally. At first, the immigrants met with no opposition from the local Arab population. However, as anti-Semitism and persecution in Europe began to increase, so did the number of immigrants to Israel. The Arabs began to feel uneasy and resentful, and the British government placed strict limits on immigration. Tensions increased between the Jews and Arabs, and riots broke out, like the infamous Hebron riots of 1929. It was at this time that the Jewish population began to form their own defense forces, such as the Haganah and the Irgun, which formed the basis of the IDF—the Israel Defense Forces.

Still, great progress was made in Israel. The Jewish sector's economy was growing, as was other aspects of Jewish life. A centralized school system was established in 1919; in 1920, the Histadrut labor Federation was founded; the Technion and Hebrew University of Jerusalem were both established during the Mandate years.

Following Arab revolts between 1936 1939, Britain issued the White Paper, essentially reneging on the principles set forth in the Mandate as well as the Balfour Declaration. Severe restrictions were placed on Jewish immigration, as well as on Jewish land-owning rights. During the years of World War II, the small quota was quickly reached, and Jews were denied entry to Palestine. Jewish public opinion turned against the British, and the underground Jewish defense organizations carried out attacks against the British. The ban on immigration remained in place, but the Mandate was becoming increasingly unpopular.

After World War II, the United Nations (the former League of Nations), adopted the Partition Plan, essentially dividing Palestine into an Arab state and a Jewish state, with Jerusalem under international control. This led to Britain ending its mandate and Israel declaring its independence in May of 1948.

The Land of IsraelInformation about the land of Israel and Eretz Yisrael

Over the years what we now know as the land of Israel was known by many names - Eretz Yisrael (Land of Israel); Zion, one of Jerusalem's hills which came to signify both the city and the Land of Israel as a whole; Palestine, derived from Philistia, and first used by the Romans; the Promised Land; and the Holy Land, to mention but a few. However, to most Israelis today, the country is simply Ha'aretz—the Land.
This section of Stand for Israel provides the information you need to know about the land of Israel.

The Land of Israel: Basic Facts

It's only 290 miles from north to south, and just 85 miles wide at its widest point, but the land of Israel encompasses the varied topographical features and climates of a continent. Learn about the land of Israel's climate, water resources and flora and fauna. Read more »

The Land of Israel: Modern Cities

Many of the cities in modern Israel date back to the towns of the Bible, while some—like Tel Aviv, Israel's largest—are only a century old. All of Israel's cities—and towns and villages—are part of Israel's unique mix of ancient and modern, bringing together cultures from around the world and those close to home. Learn more about the land of Israel's largest cities here »

Jewish Holidays

Every month on the Jewish calendar except one is marked by a holiday, festival, or observance. Learn more about the significance of Jewish holidays like Passover, Hanukkah, and Sukkot, as well as the traditions associated with them »

Wednesday, December 31, 2014