The Mideast: A Century of Conflict
A Seven-Part Series Traces the Israeli-Palestinian Dispute
A Seven-Part Series Traces the Israeli-Palestinian Dispute
September 2002 -- NPR News is presenting this special series on the roots of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict to bring context and perspective to the story, and to help listeners understand the complex situation in the Mideast, the history, and the consequences of the confrontation. To accomplish this, NPR has gone to leading historians of the region to document the deep and conflicting roots of today's Middle East.
The Israelis and Palestinians have been fighting over control of the same piece of land for nearly a century. They are also fighting over each significant episode in that history. Each side has its own version of events. The series, reported by Diplomatic Correspondent Mike Shuster, is NPR's attempt to revisit the significant episodes of that history and give both Palestinian and Israeli historians an opportunity to explain how they see it differently. Monday, September 30, 2002
The Israelis and Palestinians have been fighting over control of the same piece of land for nearly a century. They are also fighting over each significant episode in that history. Each side has its own version of events. The series, reported by Diplomatic Correspondent Mike Shuster, is NPR's attempt to revisit the significant episodes of that history and give both Palestinian and Israeli historians an opportunity to explain how they see it differently. Monday, September 30, 2002
The Mideast: A Century of Conflict
Part 1: Theodor Herzl and the First Zionist Congress
Part 1: Theodor Herzl and the First Zionist Congress
Listen to Part 1 of Mike Shuster's series.
Read a transcript of Part 1 of Mike Shuster's series.See a map of Palestine under the Ottoman Empire. Theodor Herzl Photo courtesy the Herzliana collection of Dr. Motti Friedman, director of The Pedagogic Center, The Department for Jewish Zionist Education |
 Sept. 3, 1897, entry (in German) from Theodor Herzl's diary, in which he makes the famous statement: "At Basel, I founded the Jewish State." Photo courtesy World Zionist Organization Hagshama Department View enlargement |
"Herzl...was completely secular and he had no particular attachment to the Jewish religion. As he conceived it, the idea of a Jewish state was a secular idea."
Avi Shlaim, author ofThe Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World |
Sept. 30, 2002 -- Jews living in Europe suffered for many years from varying degrees of anti-Semitism, and many had longed to return to the biblical land of Israel. But not until Theodor Herzl published his pamphlet Der Judenstaat, or "The Jewish State," did Jews in Europe begin to formulate a political solution to anti-Semitism.
As NPR Diplomatic Correspondent Mike Shuster, reports in the first of Morning Edition's seven-part series on the history of the Middle East conflict, Zionism emerged as the political movement to create a Jewish state.
"Herzl was an assimilated Viennese Jew, a journalist and a playwright," says Avi Shlaim, author of The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World. "He was completely secular and he had no particular attachment to the Jewish religion. As he conceived it, the idea of a Jewish state was a secular idea."
In 1897, Herzl brought about 250 of his followers together in the first Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland. The meeting, designed to formulate the movement's goals and strategies, launched the World Zionist Organization.
The goal of the Congress, expressed in a formally adopted program, would be the creation of a home in Palestine for the Jewish people. Herzl judged the meeting a success, writing in his diary: "Were I to sum up the Basel Congress in a word, it would be this: At Basel I founded the Jewish State. If I said this out loud today, I would be answered by universal laughter. Perhaps in five years and certainly in 50, everyone will know it."
Herzl's words were prophetic, Shuster reports. The state of Israel would be founded just over 50 years later.
In 1897, though, Palestine was a sleepy Arab backwater of the Ottoman Empire. Palestine had been ruled from Constantinople by the Turkish sultans for nearly 500 years and was populated largely by Arab peasant farmers, most of whom had never heard of Zionism.
Some early communities of Jewish immigrants had been established in Palestine. In the 1890s, an estimated 20,000 to 50,000 Jews were living among about 500,000 Arabs. Herzl and his followers paid little attention to the Arab population, and, at first, the Arabs of Palestine knew little of Herzl's plans.
In 1905, Najib Azouri published what is considered the first public appeal to Arab nationalism, a book called The Awakening of the Arab Nation. This came just as thousands of additional Jewish immigrants were arriving in Palestine, fleeing a new wave of anti-Semitic pogroms in Russia, Ukraine and Poland.
Two things were happening in the Ottoman Middle East, Azouri wrote: "the awakening of the Arab nation, and the effort of the Jews to reconstitute the ancient kingdom of Israel." His conclusion was also prophetic: "These movements are destined to fight each other continually until one of them wins."
Theodor Herzl (1860-1904)
The founder of modern Zionism. Born to a middle class Jewish family in Budapest, Hungary. Studied law at University of Vienna. Became successful journalist, essayist, and playwright. Covered Dreyfus affair in Paris for Viennese newspaper. Wrote pamphlet, Der Judenstaat or "The Jewish State" in 1896, setting out argument for a Jewish state as a solution to problem of European anti-Semitism. Organized first Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland, 1897. Met many European and world leaders in quest for support for Jewish state in Palestine, including the Ottoman Sultan, who ruled over Palestine at the time. In 1949, his body was buried near Jerusalem.
Other Resources
• Read a translated text of Theodor Herzl's 1886 pamphlet, Der Judenstaat or "The Jewish State."
As NPR Diplomatic Correspondent Mike Shuster, reports in the first of Morning Edition's seven-part series on the history of the Middle East conflict, Zionism emerged as the political movement to create a Jewish state.
"Herzl was an assimilated Viennese Jew, a journalist and a playwright," says Avi Shlaim, author of The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World. "He was completely secular and he had no particular attachment to the Jewish religion. As he conceived it, the idea of a Jewish state was a secular idea."
In 1897, Herzl brought about 250 of his followers together in the first Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland. The meeting, designed to formulate the movement's goals and strategies, launched the World Zionist Organization.
The goal of the Congress, expressed in a formally adopted program, would be the creation of a home in Palestine for the Jewish people. Herzl judged the meeting a success, writing in his diary: "Were I to sum up the Basel Congress in a word, it would be this: At Basel I founded the Jewish State. If I said this out loud today, I would be answered by universal laughter. Perhaps in five years and certainly in 50, everyone will know it."
Herzl's words were prophetic, Shuster reports. The state of Israel would be founded just over 50 years later.
In 1897, though, Palestine was a sleepy Arab backwater of the Ottoman Empire. Palestine had been ruled from Constantinople by the Turkish sultans for nearly 500 years and was populated largely by Arab peasant farmers, most of whom had never heard of Zionism.
Some early communities of Jewish immigrants had been established in Palestine. In the 1890s, an estimated 20,000 to 50,000 Jews were living among about 500,000 Arabs. Herzl and his followers paid little attention to the Arab population, and, at first, the Arabs of Palestine knew little of Herzl's plans.
In 1905, Najib Azouri published what is considered the first public appeal to Arab nationalism, a book called The Awakening of the Arab Nation. This came just as thousands of additional Jewish immigrants were arriving in Palestine, fleeing a new wave of anti-Semitic pogroms in Russia, Ukraine and Poland.
Two things were happening in the Ottoman Middle East, Azouri wrote: "the awakening of the Arab nation, and the effort of the Jews to reconstitute the ancient kingdom of Israel." His conclusion was also prophetic: "These movements are destined to fight each other continually until one of them wins."
Theodor Herzl (1860-1904)
The founder of modern Zionism. Born to a middle class Jewish family in Budapest, Hungary. Studied law at University of Vienna. Became successful journalist, essayist, and playwright. Covered Dreyfus affair in Paris for Viennese newspaper. Wrote pamphlet, Der Judenstaat or "The Jewish State" in 1896, setting out argument for a Jewish state as a solution to problem of European anti-Semitism. Organized first Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland, 1897. Met many European and world leaders in quest for support for Jewish state in Palestine, including the Ottoman Sultan, who ruled over Palestine at the time. In 1949, his body was buried near Jerusalem.
Other Resources
• Read a translated text of Theodor Herzl's 1886 pamphlet, Der Judenstaat or "The Jewish State."
The Mideast: A Century of Conflict
Part 2: The Balfour Declaration and the British Mandate
Part 2: The Balfour Declaration and the British Mandate
Listen to Part 2 of Mike Shuster's series.Read a transcript of Part 2 of Mike Shuster's series.See a map of Palestine under the British Mandate. A closeup of the Balfour Declaration text. The 1917 document declared that the British favored a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Photo courtesy World Zionist Organization Hagshama Department View enlargement |
The Balfour Declaration
Foreign Office November 2nd, 1917 Dear Lord Rothschild, I have much pleasure in conveying to you, on behalf of His Majesty's Government, the following declaration of sympathy with Jewish Zionist aspirations which has been submitted to, and approved by, the Cabinet. 'His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.' I should be grateful if you would bring this declaration to the knowledge of the Zionist Federation. Yours sincerely, Arthur James Balfour |
 Map of the British Mandate of Palestine. Source: Atlas of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 7th edition - Sir Martin Gilbert; Publisher: Routledge (Taylor & Francis), 2002; ISBN: 0415281172 (paperback), 0415281164 (hardback); Map: NPR Online View detailed map |
Oct. 1, 2002 -- In 1917, 20 years after the first Zionist Congress proposed establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine, Great Britain declared itself in favor of such a plan.
The Balfour Declaration "was the product of British strategic thinking," says NPR's Mike Shuster -- "and (of) the lobbying of modern Zionism's second great personality, Chaim Weizmann." Shuster reports in the second of Morning Edition's seven-part series on the history of the Middle East conflict.
Weizmann, a Russian Jew, settled in Great Britain before World War I, and became the local representative of the World Zionist Organization, which had set a Jewish homeland in Palestine as its goal in 1897. He managed to make his way into the offices of Great Britain's highest officials, including David Lloyd George, who became prime minister in 1916.
The British quickly warmed to the strategic value of a Zionist enterprise in Palestine, says Howard Sachar, the author of A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time. "People like Lloyd George, people like Arthur James Balfour -- the British foreign secretary -- in the latter phase of the war began to see a number of very important advantages to cultivating a Jewish presence in Palestine, with the unspoken understanding that this Jewish presence would be under a British protectorate," Sachar says.
On Nov. 2, 1917, Britain issued what came to be known as the Balfour Declaration. The letter from Balfour declared the government in favor of establishing "a national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.
The Zionists were euphoric, Shuster reports. They understood the words "national home" to mean Jewish state.
Rashid Khalidi, a Palestinian-American historian at the University of Chicago, calls the declaration a monumental injustice: "The Balfour Declaration involved a promise by an imperial power to establish a national home for a minority in a country that had a population which was not recognized in that declaration... The existing non-Jewish populations were the 92 percent majority of the country. Their national and political rights were ignored in a declaration which promised national and political rights to the Jewish people."
Britain gained control of Palestine at the end of World War I. And in 1922, the League of Nations gave a mandate to Britain to rule Palestine, envisioning that the territory would eventually be granted independence.
Britain attempted to bridge the political interests of both the Zionist settlers and the indigenous Palestinian Arabs. But violence broke out between the two communities almost from the start. It culminated in the Arab revolt of 1936, which left hundreds of Arabs and Jews dead. Britain proposed partitioning Palestine, an idea the Palestinians rejected and for which the Zionists had little enthusiasm. When World War II broke out, Great Britain was ready to leave Palestine.
Chaim Weizmann (1874-1952)
Born in a poor Jewish village in Russia. Studied chemistry in Germany and Switzerland. Settled in England in 1904, and became the representative of the World Zionist Organization. Played an important role in convincing the British government to issue the Balfour Declaration (1917) in which Great Britain expressed support for the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Became head of the World Zionist Organization in 1921. Helped to persuade President Harry Truman to support the U.N. proposal to partition Palestine; and in 1949, was elected the first president of Israel.
Arthur James Balfour (1848-1930)
British Conservative Party leader in early part of 20th century. Prime Minister 1902-1905. Foreign Secretary 1916-1919 in wartime cabinet of David Lloyd George. Issued what has come to be known as the Balfour Declaration (Nov. 2, 1917), a letter from him to Baron Rothschild, expressing the support of the British government for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
Other Resources
• Read the 1922 League of Nations document making Palestine amandate of Britain.
• Read the British White Paper of 1939, which traditional historians of Israel see as a repudiation of Zionism and the Balfour Declaration.
The Balfour Declaration "was the product of British strategic thinking," says NPR's Mike Shuster -- "and (of) the lobbying of modern Zionism's second great personality, Chaim Weizmann." Shuster reports in the second of Morning Edition's seven-part series on the history of the Middle East conflict.
Weizmann, a Russian Jew, settled in Great Britain before World War I, and became the local representative of the World Zionist Organization, which had set a Jewish homeland in Palestine as its goal in 1897. He managed to make his way into the offices of Great Britain's highest officials, including David Lloyd George, who became prime minister in 1916.
The British quickly warmed to the strategic value of a Zionist enterprise in Palestine, says Howard Sachar, the author of A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time. "People like Lloyd George, people like Arthur James Balfour -- the British foreign secretary -- in the latter phase of the war began to see a number of very important advantages to cultivating a Jewish presence in Palestine, with the unspoken understanding that this Jewish presence would be under a British protectorate," Sachar says.
On Nov. 2, 1917, Britain issued what came to be known as the Balfour Declaration. The letter from Balfour declared the government in favor of establishing "a national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.
The Zionists were euphoric, Shuster reports. They understood the words "national home" to mean Jewish state.
Rashid Khalidi, a Palestinian-American historian at the University of Chicago, calls the declaration a monumental injustice: "The Balfour Declaration involved a promise by an imperial power to establish a national home for a minority in a country that had a population which was not recognized in that declaration... The existing non-Jewish populations were the 92 percent majority of the country. Their national and political rights were ignored in a declaration which promised national and political rights to the Jewish people."
Britain gained control of Palestine at the end of World War I. And in 1922, the League of Nations gave a mandate to Britain to rule Palestine, envisioning that the territory would eventually be granted independence.
Britain attempted to bridge the political interests of both the Zionist settlers and the indigenous Palestinian Arabs. But violence broke out between the two communities almost from the start. It culminated in the Arab revolt of 1936, which left hundreds of Arabs and Jews dead. Britain proposed partitioning Palestine, an idea the Palestinians rejected and for which the Zionists had little enthusiasm. When World War II broke out, Great Britain was ready to leave Palestine.
Chaim Weizmann (1874-1952)
Born in a poor Jewish village in Russia. Studied chemistry in Germany and Switzerland. Settled in England in 1904, and became the representative of the World Zionist Organization. Played an important role in convincing the British government to issue the Balfour Declaration (1917) in which Great Britain expressed support for the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Became head of the World Zionist Organization in 1921. Helped to persuade President Harry Truman to support the U.N. proposal to partition Palestine; and in 1949, was elected the first president of Israel.Arthur James Balfour (1848-1930)
British Conservative Party leader in early part of 20th century. Prime Minister 1902-1905. Foreign Secretary 1916-1919 in wartime cabinet of David Lloyd George. Issued what has come to be known as the Balfour Declaration (Nov. 2, 1917), a letter from him to Baron Rothschild, expressing the support of the British government for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Other Resources
• Read the 1922 League of Nations document making Palestine amandate of Britain.
• Read the British White Paper of 1939, which traditional historians of Israel see as a repudiation of Zionism and the Balfour Declaration.
The Mideast: A Century of Conflict
Part 3: Partition, War and Independence
Part 3: Partition, War and Independence
Listen to Part 3 of Mike Shuster's series.Read a transcript of Part 3 of Mike Shuster's series.See a map of the United Nations Partition Plan of 1947. Map of the United Nations Partition Plan of 1947. Source: Atlas of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 7th edition - Sir Martin Gilbert; Publisher: Routledge (Taylor & Francis), 2002; ISBN: 0415281172 (paperback), 0415281164 (hardback); Map: NPR Online View detailed map |
 David Ben-Gurion reads the declaration of the state of Israel on May 14, 1948. He is seen standing under a portrait of Theodor Herzl, the founder of modern Zionism who had called for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine a half-century earlier. Photo courtesy MultiEducator-The Multimedia History Company |
 Closeup of document in which U.S. President Harry Truman recognizes the new state of Israel, May 14, 1948. Photo: Truman Library View enlargement |
Oct. 2, 2002 -- Once it was clear that Germany had lost World War II, the Zionists in Palestine turned on the British. Underground Jewish groups began to attack the British army -- and the Palestinians. The violence escalated, and by 1946, Great Britain decided to turn the whole issue of what would happen to Palestine over to the newly established United Nations.
The U.N. proposed partitioning Palestine into two states -- one Jewish, one Arab -- and the General Assembly voted in favor of that solution in November 1947. NPR Diplomatic Correspondent Mike Shusterreports on those developments in the third segment of Morning Edition's seven-part series on the history of the Middle East conflict.
U.S. President Harry Truman endorsed the U.N. partition plan for political reasons, but also because of the terrible toll of the Holocaust, according to William Quandt, author of Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict.
"We did understand there was a tremendous human need after World War II for some kind of a political solution for the survivors of the Holocaust, who could not rebuild their lives in Germany and who were in need of some sort of restitution," Quandt says.
The Arab majority in Palestine rejected the U.N. proposal. "The Jews were being offered 55 percent of Palestine when in fact they had owned only seven percent of the country," says Philip Mattar, editor of The Encyclopedia of the Palestinians. "Four-hundred-fifty thousand Palestinians were going to end up within the Jewish state, and they did not see any reason why they should go along with that kind of inequality, that kind of injustice."
On May 14, 1948, Zionist leader David Ben-Gurion announced the establishment of the independent state of Israel. Almost immediately, four Arab states -- Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq -- invaded the new state.
Israel "fought for its very existence on four fronts, but the Arab armies were disorganized and weak," Shuster says. "By November, it was clear they could not defeat Israel."
By the time the war ended in 1949, Israel had even more land than called for in the U.N. partition plan. "Israel ended up with 78 percent of Palestine," says Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, author of Original Sins: Reflections on the History of Zionism and Israel. "The Palestinian community in Palestine just disintegrated. The majority of Palestinians became refugees, and Palestine -- the geographical term Palestine -- disappeared from the map."
In the war, 750,000 Palestinians fled their homes and became refugees. Most were driven out either by force or by fear, historians say. "In some cases there were massacres," says Rashid Khalidi of the University of Chicago. "In some cases people were put on trucks and sent away. In some cases they fled on their own."
"The Palestinians fled to refugee camps in Jordan, Lebanon, Gaza, and what is now called the West Bank," Shuster reports. "Thousands with their children and grandchildren live in those camps until now. And from those camps would spring the Palestinian movement -- the guerrilla fighters and bombmakers and political leaders -- who would continue to fight Israel and challenge its right to exist, down to this day."
David Ben-Gurion (1886-1973)
Zionist leader who declared the independence of the state of Israel. Born in Russia, arrived in Palestine in 1906. Fought in the British Army in the Middle East during World War I. Founded Histadrut, the confederation of Jewish workers in Palestine in 1920. Later became head of the Jewish Agency, the Zionist movement's quasi-government in Palestine. Became Israel's first prime minister and defense minister. Except for a brief hiatus (1953-1955), was Israel's leader until 1963. Remained a member of the Israeli Knesset (Parliament) until 1970.
Menachem Begin (1913-1992)
Born in Brest-Litovsk, Russia. Active in Zionist movement through 1930s. Protégé of Vladimir Jabotinsky, founder of revisionist Zionism, a faction of the Zionist movement that eventually found its expression in Israel's Likud Party. Commander of the militant underground armed faction Irgun from 1943-1948. Became co-chairman of the Likud coalition in 1970. Elected prime minister of Israel in 1977. Recipient with Egyptian President Anwar Sadat of Nobel Peace Prize in 1978. Negotiated peace treaty with Egypt in 1979. Ordered Israel's invasion of Lebanon in 1982, and retired the next year.
Other Resources
• Read U.N. General Assembly Resolution 181, approved Nov. 29, 1947, which called for the partition for Palestine.
• See additional related documents and materials at the U.N. site on the "question of Palestine."
• See historic documents at the Truman Library about the U.S. recognition of the state of Israel in 1948.
The U.N. proposed partitioning Palestine into two states -- one Jewish, one Arab -- and the General Assembly voted in favor of that solution in November 1947. NPR Diplomatic Correspondent Mike Shusterreports on those developments in the third segment of Morning Edition's seven-part series on the history of the Middle East conflict.
U.S. President Harry Truman endorsed the U.N. partition plan for political reasons, but also because of the terrible toll of the Holocaust, according to William Quandt, author of Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict.
"We did understand there was a tremendous human need after World War II for some kind of a political solution for the survivors of the Holocaust, who could not rebuild their lives in Germany and who were in need of some sort of restitution," Quandt says.
The Arab majority in Palestine rejected the U.N. proposal. "The Jews were being offered 55 percent of Palestine when in fact they had owned only seven percent of the country," says Philip Mattar, editor of The Encyclopedia of the Palestinians. "Four-hundred-fifty thousand Palestinians were going to end up within the Jewish state, and they did not see any reason why they should go along with that kind of inequality, that kind of injustice."
On May 14, 1948, Zionist leader David Ben-Gurion announced the establishment of the independent state of Israel. Almost immediately, four Arab states -- Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq -- invaded the new state.
Israel "fought for its very existence on four fronts, but the Arab armies were disorganized and weak," Shuster says. "By November, it was clear they could not defeat Israel."
By the time the war ended in 1949, Israel had even more land than called for in the U.N. partition plan. "Israel ended up with 78 percent of Palestine," says Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, author of Original Sins: Reflections on the History of Zionism and Israel. "The Palestinian community in Palestine just disintegrated. The majority of Palestinians became refugees, and Palestine -- the geographical term Palestine -- disappeared from the map."
In the war, 750,000 Palestinians fled their homes and became refugees. Most were driven out either by force or by fear, historians say. "In some cases there were massacres," says Rashid Khalidi of the University of Chicago. "In some cases people were put on trucks and sent away. In some cases they fled on their own."
"The Palestinians fled to refugee camps in Jordan, Lebanon, Gaza, and what is now called the West Bank," Shuster reports. "Thousands with their children and grandchildren live in those camps until now. And from those camps would spring the Palestinian movement -- the guerrilla fighters and bombmakers and political leaders -- who would continue to fight Israel and challenge its right to exist, down to this day."
David Ben-Gurion (1886-1973)
Zionist leader who declared the independence of the state of Israel. Born in Russia, arrived in Palestine in 1906. Fought in the British Army in the Middle East during World War I. Founded Histadrut, the confederation of Jewish workers in Palestine in 1920. Later became head of the Jewish Agency, the Zionist movement's quasi-government in Palestine. Became Israel's first prime minister and defense minister. Except for a brief hiatus (1953-1955), was Israel's leader until 1963. Remained a member of the Israeli Knesset (Parliament) until 1970.Menachem Begin (1913-1992)
Born in Brest-Litovsk, Russia. Active in Zionist movement through 1930s. Protégé of Vladimir Jabotinsky, founder of revisionist Zionism, a faction of the Zionist movement that eventually found its expression in Israel's Likud Party. Commander of the militant underground armed faction Irgun from 1943-1948. Became co-chairman of the Likud coalition in 1970. Elected prime minister of Israel in 1977. Recipient with Egyptian President Anwar Sadat of Nobel Peace Prize in 1978. Negotiated peace treaty with Egypt in 1979. Ordered Israel's invasion of Lebanon in 1982, and retired the next year. Other Resources
• Read U.N. General Assembly Resolution 181, approved Nov. 29, 1947, which called for the partition for Palestine.
• See additional related documents and materials at the U.N. site on the "question of Palestine."
• See historic documents at the Truman Library about the U.S. recognition of the state of Israel in 1948.
The Mideast: A Century of Conflict
Part 4: The 1967 Six Day War
Part 4: The 1967 Six Day War
Listen to Part 4 of Mike Shuster's series.Read a transcript of Part 4 of Mike Shuster's series.See maps of Israel's borders before and after the Six Day War. Map of Israeli conquests in the 1967 Six Day War. Source: Atlas of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 7th edition - Sir Martin Gilbert; Publisher: Routledge (Taylor & Francis), 2002; ISBN: 0415281172 (paperback), 0415281164 (hardback); Map: NPR Online View detailed map |
 Israeli troops in Jerusalem during the Six Day War. Photo courtesy MultiEducator-The Multimedia History Company View complete photo |
Oct. 3, 2002 -- No Arab state had made peace with Israel, and in 1967, events conspired to bring war between Israel and its neighbors -- Egypt, Syria, and Jordan.
NPR Diplomatic Correspondent Mike Shuster reports on the Six Day War and its aftermath in the fourth segment of theMorning Edition series on the history of the Middle East conflict.
"In 1967, the mood in the Middle East was ugly," Shuster reports. "Israel, independent since 1948, was surrounded by Arab states dedicated to its eradication. Egypt was ruled by Gamal Abdel Nasser, a firebrand nationalist whose army was the strongest in the Arab Middle East. Syria was governed by the radical Baathist Party, constantly issuing threats to push Israel into the sea."
The Israelis attacked Egypt first, on June 5, 1967, in what most historians say was a defensive move. In the spring of that year, the Soviet Union had led the radical government in Damascus to believe that Israel was planning to invade Syria. Syria shared this misinformation with Nasser. The Egyptian leader closed the Gulf of Aqaba to shipping, cutting off Israel's primary oil supplies. He also ordered United Nations peacekeepers to leave the Sinai Peninsula. And he sent scores of tanks and hundreds of troops into the Sinai toward Israel.
Nasser's stature was immediately boosted in the Arab world, says Michael Oren, author of Six Days of War. "He was elevated to almost a god-like status overnight and politically it seemed like a good bargain," Oren says. "The bad news was he wasn't counting on Israel striking back militarily."
After three weeks of internal debate, Israel's leaders decided to attack. In the first day, Israel nearly destroyed Egypt's air force, and struck deep into the Sinai Peninsula, Egyptian territory. After six days of war, Israel had seized all of the Sinai and Gaza from Egypt, the West Bank and all of Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria.
The seizure of the Temple Mount and the Western Wall in Old Jerusalem allowed Israelis to visit and worship at the holy sites for the first time in decades. Historian Benny Morris, author of The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, the Jews and Palestine, says "there was not just a sigh of relief that the threat of Arab attack had been dispelled, but there was also this outbreak of joy that at last the Israeli army had conquered the sites holiest to Judaism."
The war profoundly changed Israel itself, says historian Anita Shapira, of the Chaim Weizmann Institute for the Study of Zionism in Tel Aviv. It led to the emergence of a strong mythic movement that claimed the West Bank as part of greater Israel.
In the months after the Six Day War, Palestinian guerrilla leader Yasser Arafat organized an insurrection in the West Bank. It failed, but it brought about a shift in the outlook of the Palestinians, says Yezid Sayigh, author of Armed Struggle and the Search for State: The Palestinian National Movement, 1945-1993. "This in a sense catapulted the general Palestinian public into the arms of the guerrillas because they'd seen that the people they'd hinged their hopes on -- the Arab leaders and the armies they'd believed in -- had been swept aside in a matter of days.
"And here came along a bunch of young men who jumped into the West Bank and the Gaza Strip (and) said: 'We're going to take matters into our own hands. The Palestinians will stand up and fight for themselves. We're going to transform ourselves from being destitute refugees waiting for charity handouts from the U.N. and turn ourselves into freedom-fighters, people with dignity.'"
In the wake of Israel's dramatic victory over traditional Arab armies, Shuster says, "the central conflict would be waged between the Israelis and the stateless Palestinians for the land they both claimed as their own."
Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918-1970)
President of Egypt from 1956 to 1970. Born in mud-brick house in Alexandria, Egypt. Attended Royal Military Academy and entered Egyptian army. Helped found secret military organization, the Free Officers, whose goal was to oust the British from Egypt and overthrow the Egyptian royal family. Led a coup d'etat in 1952. Nationalized Suez Canal in 1956. Became leading nationalist of Arab world and created United Arab Republic (Egypt and Syria) in 1958. Moved troops into the Sinai and cut off Israeli oil supplies in 1967, which led to the Six Day War, in which Egypt's air force was nearly destroyed in the first day, and Israel occupied the Sinai Peninsula all the way to the east bank of the Suez Canal.
Yasser Arafat (1929- )
Leader of Palestine Liberation Organization from 1969 to present. Believed to have been born in Cairo, Egypt. Attended University of Cairo, becoming a civil engineer. In the late 1950s he helped form Fatah, one of the Palestinian groups created to fight the state of Israel. Launched guerrilla operations against Israel in 1965. Tried but failed to organize insurrection against Israel's occupation of the West Bank after Six Day War in 1967. Spoke to the U.N. General Assembly on behalf of Palestinians in 1974. Established base in Beirut, but was ousted by Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982. Sent into exile in Tunisia. Supported Iraq's Saddam Hussein during the Persian Gulf War, but agreed to compromise with Israel after Iraq's defeat. Signed the Oslo Agreement with Israel in 1993 and was co-recipient of Nobel Peace Prize along with Shimon Peres, Israel's then foreign minister. Returned to Gaza and was elected president of Palestinian Authority in 1996. Walked away from Camp David negotiations in 2000. Now under siege in Ramallah by Israeli army.
Other Resources
• Read U.N. Security Council Resolution 242, approved Nov. 22, 1967, which called for Israel's withdrawal from territories it captured in the Six Day War and set a hoped-for framework for "a just and lasting peace" in the region.
• See additional related documents and materials at the U.N. site on the "question of Palestine."
• See additional photos of the Six Day War.
NPR Diplomatic Correspondent Mike Shuster reports on the Six Day War and its aftermath in the fourth segment of theMorning Edition series on the history of the Middle East conflict.
"In 1967, the mood in the Middle East was ugly," Shuster reports. "Israel, independent since 1948, was surrounded by Arab states dedicated to its eradication. Egypt was ruled by Gamal Abdel Nasser, a firebrand nationalist whose army was the strongest in the Arab Middle East. Syria was governed by the radical Baathist Party, constantly issuing threats to push Israel into the sea."
The Israelis attacked Egypt first, on June 5, 1967, in what most historians say was a defensive move. In the spring of that year, the Soviet Union had led the radical government in Damascus to believe that Israel was planning to invade Syria. Syria shared this misinformation with Nasser. The Egyptian leader closed the Gulf of Aqaba to shipping, cutting off Israel's primary oil supplies. He also ordered United Nations peacekeepers to leave the Sinai Peninsula. And he sent scores of tanks and hundreds of troops into the Sinai toward Israel.
Nasser's stature was immediately boosted in the Arab world, says Michael Oren, author of Six Days of War. "He was elevated to almost a god-like status overnight and politically it seemed like a good bargain," Oren says. "The bad news was he wasn't counting on Israel striking back militarily."
After three weeks of internal debate, Israel's leaders decided to attack. In the first day, Israel nearly destroyed Egypt's air force, and struck deep into the Sinai Peninsula, Egyptian territory. After six days of war, Israel had seized all of the Sinai and Gaza from Egypt, the West Bank and all of Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria.
The seizure of the Temple Mount and the Western Wall in Old Jerusalem allowed Israelis to visit and worship at the holy sites for the first time in decades. Historian Benny Morris, author of The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, the Jews and Palestine, says "there was not just a sigh of relief that the threat of Arab attack had been dispelled, but there was also this outbreak of joy that at last the Israeli army had conquered the sites holiest to Judaism."
The war profoundly changed Israel itself, says historian Anita Shapira, of the Chaim Weizmann Institute for the Study of Zionism in Tel Aviv. It led to the emergence of a strong mythic movement that claimed the West Bank as part of greater Israel.
In the months after the Six Day War, Palestinian guerrilla leader Yasser Arafat organized an insurrection in the West Bank. It failed, but it brought about a shift in the outlook of the Palestinians, says Yezid Sayigh, author of Armed Struggle and the Search for State: The Palestinian National Movement, 1945-1993. "This in a sense catapulted the general Palestinian public into the arms of the guerrillas because they'd seen that the people they'd hinged their hopes on -- the Arab leaders and the armies they'd believed in -- had been swept aside in a matter of days.
"And here came along a bunch of young men who jumped into the West Bank and the Gaza Strip (and) said: 'We're going to take matters into our own hands. The Palestinians will stand up and fight for themselves. We're going to transform ourselves from being destitute refugees waiting for charity handouts from the U.N. and turn ourselves into freedom-fighters, people with dignity.'"
In the wake of Israel's dramatic victory over traditional Arab armies, Shuster says, "the central conflict would be waged between the Israelis and the stateless Palestinians for the land they both claimed as their own."
Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918-1970)
President of Egypt from 1956 to 1970. Born in mud-brick house in Alexandria, Egypt. Attended Royal Military Academy and entered Egyptian army. Helped found secret military organization, the Free Officers, whose goal was to oust the British from Egypt and overthrow the Egyptian royal family. Led a coup d'etat in 1952. Nationalized Suez Canal in 1956. Became leading nationalist of Arab world and created United Arab Republic (Egypt and Syria) in 1958. Moved troops into the Sinai and cut off Israeli oil supplies in 1967, which led to the Six Day War, in which Egypt's air force was nearly destroyed in the first day, and Israel occupied the Sinai Peninsula all the way to the east bank of the Suez Canal.Yasser Arafat (1929- )
Leader of Palestine Liberation Organization from 1969 to present. Believed to have been born in Cairo, Egypt. Attended University of Cairo, becoming a civil engineer. In the late 1950s he helped form Fatah, one of the Palestinian groups created to fight the state of Israel. Launched guerrilla operations against Israel in 1965. Tried but failed to organize insurrection against Israel's occupation of the West Bank after Six Day War in 1967. Spoke to the U.N. General Assembly on behalf of Palestinians in 1974. Established base in Beirut, but was ousted by Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982. Sent into exile in Tunisia. Supported Iraq's Saddam Hussein during the Persian Gulf War, but agreed to compromise with Israel after Iraq's defeat. Signed the Oslo Agreement with Israel in 1993 and was co-recipient of Nobel Peace Prize along with Shimon Peres, Israel's then foreign minister. Returned to Gaza and was elected president of Palestinian Authority in 1996. Walked away from Camp David negotiations in 2000. Now under siege in Ramallah by Israeli army. Other Resources
• Read U.N. Security Council Resolution 242, approved Nov. 22, 1967, which called for Israel's withdrawal from territories it captured in the Six Day War and set a hoped-for framework for "a just and lasting peace" in the region.
• See additional related documents and materials at the U.N. site on the "question of Palestine."
• See additional photos of the Six Day War.
The Mideast: A Century of Conflict
Part 5: From the 1973 Yom Kippur War to Peace with Egypt
Part 5: From the 1973 Yom Kippur War to Peace with Egypt
Listen to Part 5 of Mike Shuster's series.Read a transcript of Part 5 of Mike Shuster's series.See a map showing Egyptian and Syrian advances in the Yom Kippur War. Anwar Sadat, Jimmy Carter and Menachem Begin sign 1978 Camp David accords. Photo: National Archives, Carter White House Photographs Collection View enlargement |
"Let there be no more wars or bloodshed between Arabs and Israelis. Let there be no more suffering or denial of rights. Let there be no more despair or loss of faith. Let no mother lament the loss of her child. Let no young man waste his life on a conflict from which no one benefits."
Egyptian President Anwar Sadat, speaking at the 1979 signing ceremony of the Camp David accords |
Oct. 4, 2002 -- Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel in October 1973 to regain territories they lost in the Six Day War of 1967.
The shock of the attack -- which came on Yom Kippur, the highest of Jewish holy days -- and the strength of the Arab assault, led to a reassessment of the political and military balance in the Middle East. NPR Diplomatic Correspondent Mike Shuster reports in the fifth part of Morning Edition's series on the history of the Middle East conflict.
"This was one of the great surprises in history, the same as Pearl Harbor," says Benny Morris, author of Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist Arab Conflict. An overconfident Israel "was caught with its pants down on the 6th of October, 1973," Morris says.
Syria attacked Israeli positions on the Golan Heights. Egypt, now led by Anwar Sadat, launched 200 combat aircraft to hit Israeli forces on the eastern side of the Suez Canal. "By the end of the first day of fighting, the Egyptian army was able to cross the canal and seize positions on the Israeli side, something the Israeli army did not believe the Egyptians could do," Shuster reports.
The war, which lasted 19 days, shook Israel. It recovered militarily, but its leaders understood they needed to enter serious negotiations with the Arabs. This was the era of Secretary of State Henry Kissinger's shuttle diplomacy and the beginning of a succession of peace processes.
The war brought Menachem Begin and his right-wing Likud Party to power in 1977. "The shock of the '73 war brought about a completely new elite to rule the country for better and for worse," says historian Anita Shapira. "This war made people realize that power is not theirs forever, and that compromise is something that is necessary in order to survive in the long run."
The Palestinians, led by Yasser Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization, understood that they could no longer rely on Arab states like Egypt and Syria to fight for them. But the PLO also began to see that a compromise with Israel was necessary, especially after Egypt's Anwar Sadat signed a peace treaty with Israel in 1979. U.S. President Jimmy Carter coaxed Sadat and Begin into an agreement at Camp David in 1978.
But the Palestinians felt left out of the process, says Rashid Khalidi, author of Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness. "Most of them were very bitter that Sadat had made a separate deal, had not tried to negotiate with and on behalf of the Palestinians, and in so far as he did so, simply agreed to autonomy with Begin. The Palestinians believed that they had the right to independence, and that the Egyptians had in effect betrayed them."
Menachem Begin (1913-1992)
Recipient with Egyptian President Anwar Sadat of Nobel Peace Prize in 1978. Born in Brest-Litovsk, Russia. Active in Zionist movement through 1930s. Protégé of Vladimir Jabotinsky, founder of revisionist Zionism, a faction of the Zionist movement that eventually found its expression in Israel's Likud Party. Commander of the militant underground armed faction Irgun from 1943-1948. Became co-chairman of the Likud coalition in 1970. Elected prime minister of Israel in 1977. Negotiated peace treaty with Egypt in 1979. Ordered Israel's invasion of Lebanon in 1982, and retired the next year.
Anwar Sadat (1918-1981)
President of Egypt who made peace with Israel and won the Nobel Peace Prize as a result. Plotted the expulsion of the British from Egypt after attending military school in the 1930s. Joined Nasser's Free Officers in 1950 and participated in the coup that overthrew King Farouk two years later. Elected president of Egypt after Nasser's death in 1970. Expelled thousands of Soviet advisers from Egypt two years later. Launched surprise attack on Israel on Oct. 6, 1973, which became the Yom Kippur War. Made historic trip to Jerusalem in 1977. Negotiated peace with Israeli Prime Minister Begin at Camp David in 1978, and signed peace treaty with Israel the next year. Was assassinated by Islamic fundamentalists at a parade in Cairo in 1981, marking the eighth anniversary of the 1973 war.
Other Resources
• Read the 1978 Camp David Accords and related letters between the participants.
• Read a detailed history of the Camp David negotiations.
The shock of the attack -- which came on Yom Kippur, the highest of Jewish holy days -- and the strength of the Arab assault, led to a reassessment of the political and military balance in the Middle East. NPR Diplomatic Correspondent Mike Shuster reports in the fifth part of Morning Edition's series on the history of the Middle East conflict.
"This was one of the great surprises in history, the same as Pearl Harbor," says Benny Morris, author of Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist Arab Conflict. An overconfident Israel "was caught with its pants down on the 6th of October, 1973," Morris says.
Syria attacked Israeli positions on the Golan Heights. Egypt, now led by Anwar Sadat, launched 200 combat aircraft to hit Israeli forces on the eastern side of the Suez Canal. "By the end of the first day of fighting, the Egyptian army was able to cross the canal and seize positions on the Israeli side, something the Israeli army did not believe the Egyptians could do," Shuster reports.
The war, which lasted 19 days, shook Israel. It recovered militarily, but its leaders understood they needed to enter serious negotiations with the Arabs. This was the era of Secretary of State Henry Kissinger's shuttle diplomacy and the beginning of a succession of peace processes.
The war brought Menachem Begin and his right-wing Likud Party to power in 1977. "The shock of the '73 war brought about a completely new elite to rule the country for better and for worse," says historian Anita Shapira. "This war made people realize that power is not theirs forever, and that compromise is something that is necessary in order to survive in the long run."
The Palestinians, led by Yasser Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization, understood that they could no longer rely on Arab states like Egypt and Syria to fight for them. But the PLO also began to see that a compromise with Israel was necessary, especially after Egypt's Anwar Sadat signed a peace treaty with Israel in 1979. U.S. President Jimmy Carter coaxed Sadat and Begin into an agreement at Camp David in 1978.
But the Palestinians felt left out of the process, says Rashid Khalidi, author of Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness. "Most of them were very bitter that Sadat had made a separate deal, had not tried to negotiate with and on behalf of the Palestinians, and in so far as he did so, simply agreed to autonomy with Begin. The Palestinians believed that they had the right to independence, and that the Egyptians had in effect betrayed them."
Menachem Begin (1913-1992)
Recipient with Egyptian President Anwar Sadat of Nobel Peace Prize in 1978. Born in Brest-Litovsk, Russia. Active in Zionist movement through 1930s. Protégé of Vladimir Jabotinsky, founder of revisionist Zionism, a faction of the Zionist movement that eventually found its expression in Israel's Likud Party. Commander of the militant underground armed faction Irgun from 1943-1948. Became co-chairman of the Likud coalition in 1970. Elected prime minister of Israel in 1977. Negotiated peace treaty with Egypt in 1979. Ordered Israel's invasion of Lebanon in 1982, and retired the next year.Anwar Sadat (1918-1981)
President of Egypt who made peace with Israel and won the Nobel Peace Prize as a result. Plotted the expulsion of the British from Egypt after attending military school in the 1930s. Joined Nasser's Free Officers in 1950 and participated in the coup that overthrew King Farouk two years later. Elected president of Egypt after Nasser's death in 1970. Expelled thousands of Soviet advisers from Egypt two years later. Launched surprise attack on Israel on Oct. 6, 1973, which became the Yom Kippur War. Made historic trip to Jerusalem in 1977. Negotiated peace with Israeli Prime Minister Begin at Camp David in 1978, and signed peace treaty with Israel the next year. Was assassinated by Islamic fundamentalists at a parade in Cairo in 1981, marking the eighth anniversary of the 1973 war. Other Resources
• Read the 1978 Camp David Accords and related letters between the participants.
• Read a detailed history of the Camp David negotiations.
The Mideast: A Century of Conflict
Part 6: From the First Intifada to the Oslo Peace Agreement
Part 6: From the First Intifada to the Oslo Peace Agreement
Listen to Part 6 of Mike Shuster's series.Read a transcript of Part 6 of Mike Shuster's series.See a map of the Mideast since the 1982 return of the Sinai to Egypt. Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat shake hands on the White House lawn Sept. 13, 1993, as President Clinton looks on. Photo: National Archives View complete photo |
"We who have fought against you, the Palestinians, we say to you today, in a loud and a clear voice: Enough of blood and tears. Enough!"
Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, speaking at the 1993 signing ceremony of the Oslo agreement with the Palestinians |
Oct. 7, 2002 -- Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza had been living under Israeli occupation for 20 years when their frustration and anger broke out into open rebellion in December 1987.
In Part Six of Morning Edition's series on the Middle East conflict, NPR Diplomatic Correspondent Mike Shuster reports on that Palestinian uprising, now known as the first Intifada, and the Oslo peace agreement that followed in 1993.
The Palestinians "were stateless, living under the humiliation of identity checks, body searches and verbal abuse that were the rule of the Israeli army, watching helplessly as Israel expanded Jewish settlements on what had been their land," Shuster reports.
The Intifada "galvanized Palestinians everywhere, and it created an enormous amount of sympathy for the Palestinian cause," says historian Philip Mattar, executive director of the Institute for Palestine Studies.
The Israeli army would seize Palestinian stone-throwers and literally break their arms. As these scenes were broadcast to the world, they were seen as "a Palestinian David against the Israeli Goliath," Shuster says.
And, Mattar says, the Intifada sent a message to the Israeli public that "this could be very costly to you financially and morally. And it swayed many politicians and many generals and military people in Israel to accepting the concept of a Palestinian entity at that point."
Israel's government was divided between the right-wing Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir and Defense Minister Yitzhak Rabin of the Labor Party. Israeli historian Benny Morris says the Intifada led to the breakdown of Israel's unity government in 1990.
"Labor reached the conclusion that one cannot suppress the Intifada and must give the Palestinians some form of statehood because the Intifada cannot be beaten just militarily," Morris says. "Whereas the Likud preferred basically a military solution to the Intifada."
Yasser Arafat's exile in Tunisia caused a vacuum in the Palestinian political leadership, giving rise to Islamic fundamentalism -- in the form of Hamas and the Islamic Jihad -- in the West Bank and Gaza.
As the Intifada stretched into two and three years, more and more Israelis concluded it was time to settle with the Palestinians. In 1992, Rabin was elected prime minister, and he authorized secret negotiations with the Palestine Liberation Organization in Oslo.
The Israelis and the Palestinians signed the Oslo peace agreement Sept. 13, 1993, at the White House. The agreement envisioned creating a Palestinian state and an end to the conflict, "but it provided no road map," Shuster says.
All the hardest issues were postponed: what to do about Jewish settlements on the West Bank, the status of Jerusalem, final borders of the two countries, and whether the Palestinian refugees could return to their original homes.
Both sides were close to agreeing on an outline for dealing with many of those issues when Rabin was assassinated in 1995 by a Jewish right-wing zealot.
"Had Rabin survived, had that outline been given flesh and bones, it's not inconceivable that by 1998, '99, you would have had two states living side-by-side," says historian William Quandt, author of Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict Since 1967.
Yasser Arafat (1929- )
Leader of Palestine Liberation Organization from 1969 to present. Believed to have been born in Cairo, Egypt. Attended University of Cairo, becoming a civil engineer. In the late 1950s he helped form Fatah, one of the Palestinian groups created to fight the state of Israel. Launched guerrilla operations against Israel in 1965. Tried but failed to organize insurrection against Israel's occupation of the West Bank after Six Day War in 1967. Spoke to the U.N. General Assembly on behalf of Palestinians in 1974. Established base in Beirut, but was ousted by Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982. Sent into exile in Tunisia. Supported Iraq's Saddam Hussein during the Persian Gulf War, but agreed to compromise with Israel after Iraq's defeat. Signed the Oslo Agreement with Israel in 1993 and was co-recipient of Nobel Peace Prize along with Shimon Peres, Israel's then foreign minister. Returned to Gaza and was elected president of Palestinian Authority in 1996. Walked away from Camp David negotiations in 2000. Now under siege in Ramallah by Israeli army.
Yitzhak Rabin (1922-1995)
Israeli soldier and statesman who signed Oslo peace agreement with PLO in 1993. Born in Palestine and joined the precursor of the Israeli army in 1941. Directed the defense of Jerusalem for Israel during the 1948 war of independence. Became chief of staff of the Israeli army in 1964. Suffered short nervous breakdown in days before the outbreak of the 1967 Six Day War. Retired from army in 1968 to become Israel's ambassador to the United States. Succeeded Golda Meir as prime minister in 1974. Served as defense minister in the Labor-Likud coalition government from 1984-1990, during which he carried out Israel's crackdown on the first Intifada. Elected prime minister again in 1992 and authorized secret negotiations with the PLO in Oslo. Assassinated in 1995 by an Israeli right-wing fanatic after attending a peace rally in Tel Aviv.
Other Resources
• Read the 1993 Oslo agreement between Israel and the Palestinians.
In Part Six of Morning Edition's series on the Middle East conflict, NPR Diplomatic Correspondent Mike Shuster reports on that Palestinian uprising, now known as the first Intifada, and the Oslo peace agreement that followed in 1993.
The Palestinians "were stateless, living under the humiliation of identity checks, body searches and verbal abuse that were the rule of the Israeli army, watching helplessly as Israel expanded Jewish settlements on what had been their land," Shuster reports.
The Intifada "galvanized Palestinians everywhere, and it created an enormous amount of sympathy for the Palestinian cause," says historian Philip Mattar, executive director of the Institute for Palestine Studies.
The Israeli army would seize Palestinian stone-throwers and literally break their arms. As these scenes were broadcast to the world, they were seen as "a Palestinian David against the Israeli Goliath," Shuster says.
And, Mattar says, the Intifada sent a message to the Israeli public that "this could be very costly to you financially and morally. And it swayed many politicians and many generals and military people in Israel to accepting the concept of a Palestinian entity at that point."
Israel's government was divided between the right-wing Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir and Defense Minister Yitzhak Rabin of the Labor Party. Israeli historian Benny Morris says the Intifada led to the breakdown of Israel's unity government in 1990.
"Labor reached the conclusion that one cannot suppress the Intifada and must give the Palestinians some form of statehood because the Intifada cannot be beaten just militarily," Morris says. "Whereas the Likud preferred basically a military solution to the Intifada."
Yasser Arafat's exile in Tunisia caused a vacuum in the Palestinian political leadership, giving rise to Islamic fundamentalism -- in the form of Hamas and the Islamic Jihad -- in the West Bank and Gaza.
As the Intifada stretched into two and three years, more and more Israelis concluded it was time to settle with the Palestinians. In 1992, Rabin was elected prime minister, and he authorized secret negotiations with the Palestine Liberation Organization in Oslo.
The Israelis and the Palestinians signed the Oslo peace agreement Sept. 13, 1993, at the White House. The agreement envisioned creating a Palestinian state and an end to the conflict, "but it provided no road map," Shuster says.
All the hardest issues were postponed: what to do about Jewish settlements on the West Bank, the status of Jerusalem, final borders of the two countries, and whether the Palestinian refugees could return to their original homes.
Both sides were close to agreeing on an outline for dealing with many of those issues when Rabin was assassinated in 1995 by a Jewish right-wing zealot.
"Had Rabin survived, had that outline been given flesh and bones, it's not inconceivable that by 1998, '99, you would have had two states living side-by-side," says historian William Quandt, author of Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict Since 1967.
Yasser Arafat (1929- )
Leader of Palestine Liberation Organization from 1969 to present. Believed to have been born in Cairo, Egypt. Attended University of Cairo, becoming a civil engineer. In the late 1950s he helped form Fatah, one of the Palestinian groups created to fight the state of Israel. Launched guerrilla operations against Israel in 1965. Tried but failed to organize insurrection against Israel's occupation of the West Bank after Six Day War in 1967. Spoke to the U.N. General Assembly on behalf of Palestinians in 1974. Established base in Beirut, but was ousted by Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982. Sent into exile in Tunisia. Supported Iraq's Saddam Hussein during the Persian Gulf War, but agreed to compromise with Israel after Iraq's defeat. Signed the Oslo Agreement with Israel in 1993 and was co-recipient of Nobel Peace Prize along with Shimon Peres, Israel's then foreign minister. Returned to Gaza and was elected president of Palestinian Authority in 1996. Walked away from Camp David negotiations in 2000. Now under siege in Ramallah by Israeli army.Yitzhak Rabin (1922-1995)
Israeli soldier and statesman who signed Oslo peace agreement with PLO in 1993. Born in Palestine and joined the precursor of the Israeli army in 1941. Directed the defense of Jerusalem for Israel during the 1948 war of independence. Became chief of staff of the Israeli army in 1964. Suffered short nervous breakdown in days before the outbreak of the 1967 Six Day War. Retired from army in 1968 to become Israel's ambassador to the United States. Succeeded Golda Meir as prime minister in 1974. Served as defense minister in the Labor-Likud coalition government from 1984-1990, during which he carried out Israel's crackdown on the first Intifada. Elected prime minister again in 1992 and authorized secret negotiations with the PLO in Oslo. Assassinated in 1995 by an Israeli right-wing fanatic after attending a peace rally in Tel Aviv. Other Resources
• Read the 1993 Oslo agreement between Israel and the Palestinians.
The Mideast: A Century of Conflict
Part 7: The Second Intifada and the Death of Oslo
Part 7: The Second Intifada and the Death of Oslo
Listen to Part 7 of Mike Shuster's series.Read a transcript of Part 7 of Mike Shuster's series.See a map of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza. Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat at the Camp David summit in July 2000. Photo: U.S. State Department |
 Map of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza. Source: Foundation for Middle East Peace, © Jan de Jong; Map: NPR Online View detailed map |
Oct. 8, 2002 -- Signed at a Sept. 13, 1993, White House ceremony by Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat, the Oslo agreement was meant to bring peace. But for many reasons, the Oslo process did not succeed, says NPR Diplomatic Correspondent Mike Shuster. In the seventh and final part of Morning Edition's series on the Middle East conflict, Shuster examines the death of Oslo, and what has become of the peace process in the years since.
Just two years after the Oslo signing came what Shuster calls "the first blow (to the agreement), and many consider it fatal." On Nov. 4, 1995, a young right-wing Israeli zealot shot Rabin to death after a peace rally in Tel Aviv. With that, says Shuster, "the lone Israeli politician of his generation who seemed capable of making peace had been gunned down."
Other blows to the peace process followed. As Israel prepared for the 1996 elections, pitting Labor's Shimon Peres against the Likud's Benjamin Netanyahu, the Hamas organization carried out a series of deadly suicide bombings in Jerusalem and other Israeli cities. Netanyahu was elected -- and "when Likud came into power in 1996, Oslo was essentially over," says William Quandt, author of Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict Since 1967. "You had a prime minister in Israel who didn't believe in it." Netanyahu slowed the implementation of the Israeli withdrawal from West Bank areas, even as he increased the pace of Jewish settlements there.
Yasser Arafat had returned from exile in 1994 and set up the Palestinian Authority in Gaza and in those portions of the West Bank that the Israelis abandoned. But his method and style of governing also contributed to the failure of the Oslo process, says historian Avi Shlaim, author of The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World. "The Palestinian leadership, Yasser Arafat in particular, bear a share of the responsibility for the breakdown -- in particular, for violating some of the terms of the Oslo agreement by importing arms, by having much bigger security forces than they were entitled to, and by not laying the foundations for a democratic regime that respects human rights," says Shlaim.
President Clinton stepped in to try to revive the peace process: In October 1998, after two weeks of meetings that Clinton hosted at the Wye River Plantation in Maryland, Arafat and Netanyahu signed an agreement meant to give Oslo new life. When Netanyahu returned to Israel, says Shuster, he "again dug in his heels," blaming Palestinians for failing to fulfill the bargain. However, the peace process still had the support of the majority of Israelis; and in 1999, Netanyahu's coalition fell apart, and he was defeated in a bid for re-election by Ehud Barak.
In July 2000, Clinton brought Barak and Arafat together for a final round of negotiations at Camp David -- but the attempt failed. Says Shuster: "Barak made an offer that many consider Israel's best ever. But when he unfolded a map that showed a Palestinian state made up of several unconnected cantons surrounded by Israeli troops, Arafat walked away."
The second Intifada broke out soon thereafter and proved more deadly than the first. Rioting gave way to guerrilla attacks and then to the apparently endless series of suicide bombings. Israeli forces marshaled tanks, helicopter gunships and jet fighters, leaving many Palestinian civilians and gunmen dead. With the collapse of Barak's government, Israelis chose Ariel Sharon as their prime minister. In late March, Sharon launched a full-scale invasion of Palestinian territories, much of which remain occupied.
Over the past century of conflict, says Shuster, "it has always been hard for the two sides to perceive a path to peace. The great irony of the past decade is that almost like equal poles of a magnet, the closer the Israelis and Palestinians came to each other, the more violently they pulled away."
Yasser Arafat (1929- )
Leader of Palestine Liberation Organization from 1969 to present. Believed to have been born in Cairo, Egypt. Attended University of Cairo, becoming a civil engineer. In late 1950s helped form Fatah, one of the Palestinian groups created to fight the state of Israel. Launched guerrilla operations against Israel in 1965. Tried but failed to organize insurrection against Israel's occupation of the West Bank after Six Day War in 1967. Spoke to U.N. General Assembly on behalf of Palestinians in 1974. Established base in Beirut, but was ousted by Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982. Sent into exile in Tunisia. Supported Iraq's Saddam Hussein during Persian Gulf War, but agreed to compromise with Israel after Iraq's defeat. Signed Oslo Agreement with Israel in 1993 and was co-recipient of Nobel Peace Prize along with Shimon Peres, Israel's then-foreign minister. Returned to Gaza and was elected president of Palestinian Authority in 1996. Walked away from Camp David negotiations in 2000. Now under siege in Ramallah by Israeli army.
Ariel Sharon (1928- )
Israeli general and politician, currently prime minister. Began military career leading a crack unit during 1948 war for independence. Was commander of unit during a controversial attack in 1953 on a Jordanian village, in which many women and children were killed. As general during Six Day War in 1967, led tank unit that captured strategic Mitla Pass in Sinai Peninsula. Spearheaded Israeli counterattack in the Sinai during 1973 Yom Kippur War. Helped form Likud coalition, and became defense minister in Menachem Begin's government. The principal architect of Israel's invasion of Lebanon in 1982. An Israeli investigating commission found he had "indirect responsibility" for massacres in Sabra and Shatila Palestinian refugee camps outside Beirut in which hundreds of women and children were slaughtered by Lebanese Phalangist allies of Israel. Returned to official position in government of Benjamin Netanyahu in 1996. Elected prime minister in 2001 by biggest electoral margin in Israeli history. Has carried out re-occupation of Palestinian territories since that time.
Other Resources
• See photos and statements from the failed July 2000 Mideast summit hosted by President Clinton at Camp David.
• Read the 1998 Wye River Memorandum and review other Mideast peace efforts under the Clinton administration.
• Read the 1993 Oslo agreement between Israel and the Palestinians.
Just two years after the Oslo signing came what Shuster calls "the first blow (to the agreement), and many consider it fatal." On Nov. 4, 1995, a young right-wing Israeli zealot shot Rabin to death after a peace rally in Tel Aviv. With that, says Shuster, "the lone Israeli politician of his generation who seemed capable of making peace had been gunned down."
Other blows to the peace process followed. As Israel prepared for the 1996 elections, pitting Labor's Shimon Peres against the Likud's Benjamin Netanyahu, the Hamas organization carried out a series of deadly suicide bombings in Jerusalem and other Israeli cities. Netanyahu was elected -- and "when Likud came into power in 1996, Oslo was essentially over," says William Quandt, author of Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict Since 1967. "You had a prime minister in Israel who didn't believe in it." Netanyahu slowed the implementation of the Israeli withdrawal from West Bank areas, even as he increased the pace of Jewish settlements there.
Yasser Arafat had returned from exile in 1994 and set up the Palestinian Authority in Gaza and in those portions of the West Bank that the Israelis abandoned. But his method and style of governing also contributed to the failure of the Oslo process, says historian Avi Shlaim, author of The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World. "The Palestinian leadership, Yasser Arafat in particular, bear a share of the responsibility for the breakdown -- in particular, for violating some of the terms of the Oslo agreement by importing arms, by having much bigger security forces than they were entitled to, and by not laying the foundations for a democratic regime that respects human rights," says Shlaim.
President Clinton stepped in to try to revive the peace process: In October 1998, after two weeks of meetings that Clinton hosted at the Wye River Plantation in Maryland, Arafat and Netanyahu signed an agreement meant to give Oslo new life. When Netanyahu returned to Israel, says Shuster, he "again dug in his heels," blaming Palestinians for failing to fulfill the bargain. However, the peace process still had the support of the majority of Israelis; and in 1999, Netanyahu's coalition fell apart, and he was defeated in a bid for re-election by Ehud Barak.
In July 2000, Clinton brought Barak and Arafat together for a final round of negotiations at Camp David -- but the attempt failed. Says Shuster: "Barak made an offer that many consider Israel's best ever. But when he unfolded a map that showed a Palestinian state made up of several unconnected cantons surrounded by Israeli troops, Arafat walked away."
The second Intifada broke out soon thereafter and proved more deadly than the first. Rioting gave way to guerrilla attacks and then to the apparently endless series of suicide bombings. Israeli forces marshaled tanks, helicopter gunships and jet fighters, leaving many Palestinian civilians and gunmen dead. With the collapse of Barak's government, Israelis chose Ariel Sharon as their prime minister. In late March, Sharon launched a full-scale invasion of Palestinian territories, much of which remain occupied.
Over the past century of conflict, says Shuster, "it has always been hard for the two sides to perceive a path to peace. The great irony of the past decade is that almost like equal poles of a magnet, the closer the Israelis and Palestinians came to each other, the more violently they pulled away."
Yasser Arafat (1929- )
Leader of Palestine Liberation Organization from 1969 to present. Believed to have been born in Cairo, Egypt. Attended University of Cairo, becoming a civil engineer. In late 1950s helped form Fatah, one of the Palestinian groups created to fight the state of Israel. Launched guerrilla operations against Israel in 1965. Tried but failed to organize insurrection against Israel's occupation of the West Bank after Six Day War in 1967. Spoke to U.N. General Assembly on behalf of Palestinians in 1974. Established base in Beirut, but was ousted by Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982. Sent into exile in Tunisia. Supported Iraq's Saddam Hussein during Persian Gulf War, but agreed to compromise with Israel after Iraq's defeat. Signed Oslo Agreement with Israel in 1993 and was co-recipient of Nobel Peace Prize along with Shimon Peres, Israel's then-foreign minister. Returned to Gaza and was elected president of Palestinian Authority in 1996. Walked away from Camp David negotiations in 2000. Now under siege in Ramallah by Israeli army.Ariel Sharon (1928- )
Israeli general and politician, currently prime minister. Began military career leading a crack unit during 1948 war for independence. Was commander of unit during a controversial attack in 1953 on a Jordanian village, in which many women and children were killed. As general during Six Day War in 1967, led tank unit that captured strategic Mitla Pass in Sinai Peninsula. Spearheaded Israeli counterattack in the Sinai during 1973 Yom Kippur War. Helped form Likud coalition, and became defense minister in Menachem Begin's government. The principal architect of Israel's invasion of Lebanon in 1982. An Israeli investigating commission found he had "indirect responsibility" for massacres in Sabra and Shatila Palestinian refugee camps outside Beirut in which hundreds of women and children were slaughtered by Lebanese Phalangist allies of Israel. Returned to official position in government of Benjamin Netanyahu in 1996. Elected prime minister in 2001 by biggest electoral margin in Israeli history. Has carried out re-occupation of Palestinian territories since that time.Other Resources
• See photos and statements from the failed July 2000 Mideast summit hosted by President Clinton at Camp David.
• Read the 1998 Wye River Memorandum and review other Mideast peace efforts under the Clinton administration.
• Read the 1993 Oslo agreement between Israel and the Palestinians.
A Timeline of the Mideast Conflict
Below is a timeline of select events discussed in NPR's seven-part series on Middle East history.
Aug. 29, 1897
First Zionist Congress convenes at Basel, Switzerland. Led by Theodor Herzl, it creates the World Zionist Organization.
Jan. 3, 1916
Great Britain and France issue the Sykes-Picot Agreement, delineating the borders of the Middle East states, including Palestine, after World War I.
Nov. 2, 1917
Great Britain issues the Balfour Declaration in support of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
Sept. 18, 1918
British forces under Gen. Edmund Allenby enter Jerusalem.
July 24, 1922
The League of Nations grants Great Britain a mandate to rule Palestine.
Aug. 23-27, 1929
Anti-Jewish riots erupt in Palestine, leaving nearly 150 Jews and Arabs dead.
April 15, 1936
The Arab Revolt breaks out. Over the next three years, more than 1,000 Arabs and 400 Jews die in killings, bombings, and armed attacks, and in the efforts of British forces to stop the revolt.
July 7, 1937
The British-organized Peel Commission issues report recommending partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states as solution to the ongoing conflict.
May 17, 1939
In White Paper, Great Britain abandons support for Jewish state in Palestine, establishes ceiling for Jewish immigration to Palestine of 75,000 over next five years.
Sept. 1, 1939
World War II begins.
Feb. 1, 1944
The Irgun, a Jewish underground armed group under the command of future Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin, announces the resumption of operations against British forces in Palestine.
July 22, 1944
The Irgun bombs the King David Hotel, the British military and administrative headquarters in Jerusalem. Ninety are killed.
Nov. 29, 1947
The United Nations General Assembly votes in favor of the partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab territories.
Nov. 30, 1947
Skirmishing breaks out in Palestine between Jewish and local Arab armed groups.
May 13, 1948
The British Mandate in Palestine ends.
May 14, 1948
Zionist leader David Ben-Gurion declares the independence of the state of Israel in that part of partitioned Palestine given to the Jews.
May 15, 1948
The armies of Syria, Egypt, Lebanon and Jordan invade Palestine.
Jan. 7, 1949
A cease-fire is established ending first Arab-Israeli War.
July 23, 1952
Gamal Abdel Nasser leads revolution in Egypt.
March 8, 1963
The radical Baathist Party takes power in a coup in Syria.
May 29, 1964
The Palestine Liberation Organization is founded in Jerusalem.
May 15, 1967
Nasser deploys Egyptian troops in Sinai.
May 19, 1967
Nasser requests withdrawal of U.N. Emergency Force from Sinai.
May 22, 1967
Nasser closes Straits of Tiran at northern end of Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping.
June 5-10, 1967
Israel attacks Egypt; defeats Arab armies in Six Day War; occupies West Bank, Gaza, East Jerusalem, Golan Heights and Sinai Peninsula.
Nov. 22, 1967
U.N. Security Council adopts Resolution 242, establishing the principle of exchanging territories occupied in the Six Day War for peace with Israel.
Sept. 28, 1970
Egyptian President Nasser dies; succeeded by Anwar Sadat.
Oct. 6-26, 1973
The Yom Kippur War.
Oct. 22, 1973
U.N. Security Council Resolution 338 is adopted, calling for direct negotiations between Israel and the Arab states.
Feb. 25, 1974
U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger begins shuttle diplomacy.
May 17, 1977
Menachem Begin, leader of Likud, is elected prime minister in Israel.
Nov. 19-21, 1977
Egyptian President Anwar Sadat visits Jerusalem.
Sept. 5-17, 1978
Sadat and Begin negotiate at Camp David, mediated by President Jimmy Carter.
March 26, 1979
Begin and Sadat sign Egypt-Israel peace treaty at White House.
Oct. 6, 1981
Sadat is assassinated by Islamic fundamentalists in Cairo on the eighth anniversary of Yom Kippur War.
April 26, 1982
Israel completes withdrawal from Sinai.
June 6, 1982
Israel invades Lebanon.
Aug. 21, 1982
PLO abandons Beirut.
Sept. 16, 1982
Hundreds of Palestinians are massacred in the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps outside Beirut.
Aug. 28, 1983
Menachem Begin resigns as prime minister of Israel; is succeeded by Yitzhak Shamir.
Dec. 9, 1987
Palestinian uprising, or Intifada, erupts in West Bank and Gaza.
Aug. 2, 1990
Iraq invades Kuwait.
Jan. 16-Feb. 28, 1991
United States leads broad coalition to drive Iraq from Kuwait in Persian Gulf War.
Oct. 30, 1991
Middle East peace conference convenes in Madrid.
June 23, 1992
Yitzhak Rabin, head of Labor Party, elected prime minister in Israel.
Sept. 13, 1993
Rabin and Yasser Arafat sign Oslo Agreement, with President Bill Clinton looking on, at White House.
July 25, 1994
Rabin and King Hussein at White House sign declaration ending state of war between Israel and Jordan.
Nov. 4, 1995
Yitzhak Rabin assassinated by right-wing Israeli zealot in Tel Aviv.
Jan. 21, 1996
First Palestinian elections; Yasser Arafat is elected president of the Palestinian Authority.
May 29, 1996
Benjamin Netanyahu of Likud is elected prime minister in Israel.
May 14, 1998
Israel celebrates 50 years of independence.
Oct. 23, 1998
Netanyahu and Arafat sign Wye River memorandum.
May 17, 1999
Ehud Barak defeats Netanyahu in Israeli elections.
July 11-26, 2000
Barak and Arafat negotiate at Camp David; President Clinton mediates; fail to reach agreement on final status issues.
Sept. 28, 2000
Ariel Sharon visits Temple Mount in Jerusalem; second Intifada erupts.
Feb. 6, 2001
Ariel Sharon defeats Ehud Barak in Israeli elections.
March 29, 2002
Israel invades Palestinian territories, reoccupies Palestinian cities.
Aug. 29, 1897
First Zionist Congress convenes at Basel, Switzerland. Led by Theodor Herzl, it creates the World Zionist Organization.
Jan. 3, 1916
Great Britain and France issue the Sykes-Picot Agreement, delineating the borders of the Middle East states, including Palestine, after World War I.
Nov. 2, 1917
Great Britain issues the Balfour Declaration in support of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
Sept. 18, 1918
British forces under Gen. Edmund Allenby enter Jerusalem.
July 24, 1922
The League of Nations grants Great Britain a mandate to rule Palestine.
Aug. 23-27, 1929
Anti-Jewish riots erupt in Palestine, leaving nearly 150 Jews and Arabs dead.
April 15, 1936
The Arab Revolt breaks out. Over the next three years, more than 1,000 Arabs and 400 Jews die in killings, bombings, and armed attacks, and in the efforts of British forces to stop the revolt.
July 7, 1937
The British-organized Peel Commission issues report recommending partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states as solution to the ongoing conflict.
May 17, 1939
In White Paper, Great Britain abandons support for Jewish state in Palestine, establishes ceiling for Jewish immigration to Palestine of 75,000 over next five years.
Sept. 1, 1939
World War II begins.
Feb. 1, 1944
The Irgun, a Jewish underground armed group under the command of future Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin, announces the resumption of operations against British forces in Palestine.
July 22, 1944
The Irgun bombs the King David Hotel, the British military and administrative headquarters in Jerusalem. Ninety are killed.
Nov. 29, 1947
The United Nations General Assembly votes in favor of the partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab territories.
Nov. 30, 1947
Skirmishing breaks out in Palestine between Jewish and local Arab armed groups.
May 13, 1948
The British Mandate in Palestine ends.
May 14, 1948
Zionist leader David Ben-Gurion declares the independence of the state of Israel in that part of partitioned Palestine given to the Jews.
May 15, 1948
The armies of Syria, Egypt, Lebanon and Jordan invade Palestine.
Jan. 7, 1949
A cease-fire is established ending first Arab-Israeli War.
July 23, 1952
Gamal Abdel Nasser leads revolution in Egypt.
March 8, 1963
The radical Baathist Party takes power in a coup in Syria.
May 29, 1964
The Palestine Liberation Organization is founded in Jerusalem.
May 15, 1967
Nasser deploys Egyptian troops in Sinai.
May 19, 1967
Nasser requests withdrawal of U.N. Emergency Force from Sinai.
May 22, 1967
Nasser closes Straits of Tiran at northern end of Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping.
June 5-10, 1967
Israel attacks Egypt; defeats Arab armies in Six Day War; occupies West Bank, Gaza, East Jerusalem, Golan Heights and Sinai Peninsula.
Nov. 22, 1967
U.N. Security Council adopts Resolution 242, establishing the principle of exchanging territories occupied in the Six Day War for peace with Israel.
Sept. 28, 1970
Egyptian President Nasser dies; succeeded by Anwar Sadat.
Oct. 6-26, 1973
The Yom Kippur War.
Oct. 22, 1973
U.N. Security Council Resolution 338 is adopted, calling for direct negotiations between Israel and the Arab states.
Feb. 25, 1974
U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger begins shuttle diplomacy.
May 17, 1977
Menachem Begin, leader of Likud, is elected prime minister in Israel.
Nov. 19-21, 1977
Egyptian President Anwar Sadat visits Jerusalem.
Sept. 5-17, 1978
Sadat and Begin negotiate at Camp David, mediated by President Jimmy Carter.
March 26, 1979
Begin and Sadat sign Egypt-Israel peace treaty at White House.
Oct. 6, 1981
Sadat is assassinated by Islamic fundamentalists in Cairo on the eighth anniversary of Yom Kippur War.
April 26, 1982
Israel completes withdrawal from Sinai.
June 6, 1982
Israel invades Lebanon.
Aug. 21, 1982
PLO abandons Beirut.
Sept. 16, 1982
Hundreds of Palestinians are massacred in the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps outside Beirut.
Aug. 28, 1983
Menachem Begin resigns as prime minister of Israel; is succeeded by Yitzhak Shamir.
Dec. 9, 1987
Palestinian uprising, or Intifada, erupts in West Bank and Gaza.
Aug. 2, 1990
Iraq invades Kuwait.
Jan. 16-Feb. 28, 1991
United States leads broad coalition to drive Iraq from Kuwait in Persian Gulf War.
Oct. 30, 1991
Middle East peace conference convenes in Madrid.
June 23, 1992
Yitzhak Rabin, head of Labor Party, elected prime minister in Israel.
Sept. 13, 1993
Rabin and Yasser Arafat sign Oslo Agreement, with President Bill Clinton looking on, at White House.
July 25, 1994
Rabin and King Hussein at White House sign declaration ending state of war between Israel and Jordan.
Nov. 4, 1995
Yitzhak Rabin assassinated by right-wing Israeli zealot in Tel Aviv.
Jan. 21, 1996
First Palestinian elections; Yasser Arafat is elected president of the Palestinian Authority.
May 29, 1996
Benjamin Netanyahu of Likud is elected prime minister in Israel.
May 14, 1998
Israel celebrates 50 years of independence.
Oct. 23, 1998
Netanyahu and Arafat sign Wye River memorandum.
May 17, 1999
Ehud Barak defeats Netanyahu in Israeli elections.
July 11-26, 2000
Barak and Arafat negotiate at Camp David; President Clinton mediates; fail to reach agreement on final status issues.
Sept. 28, 2000
Ariel Sharon visits Temple Mount in Jerusalem; second Intifada erupts.
Feb. 6, 2001
Ariel Sharon defeats Ehud Barak in Israeli elections.
March 29, 2002
Israel invades Palestinian territories, reoccupies Palestinian cities.
No comments:
Post a Comment